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A bottle of olive oil that is used in food is shown. Credit: my friend.

Def. "liquid fat"[1] or "petroleum-based liquid used as fuel or lubricant"[2] is called an oil.

Fats

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Def. specialized "animal tissue with a high oil content, used for long-term storage of energy"[3] is called fat.

Oils may be animal fats, vegetable oils, or petrochemicals in origin, and may be volatile or non-volatile.[4]

Analysis of black walnut fat content in its oil showed the most prevalent fatty acids are linoleic acid (33.8%), followed (in the same units) by oleic acid (15.3%), linolenic acid (2.7%), palmitic acid (1.9%), and stearic acid (1.5%) (USDA table).

Black walnut kernels are 5% water, 59% fat, 24% protein, and 10% carbohydrates (table). In a 100 gram reference amount providing 619 calories, the kernels supply several dietary minerals in rich content (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV), including manganese (186% DV) and phosphorus (73% DV) among others, and the B vitamins, B6 (45% DV) and pantothenic acid (33% DV) (table). Black walnut kernels are a moderate source of vitamin E (14% DV).

Essential oils

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Def. "a volatile oil, used to make perfumes and flavourings, especially one having the characteristic odour of the plant from which it is obtained"[5] is called an essential oil.

Essential oils are volatile and liquid aroma compounds from natural sources, usually plants. They are not oils in a strict sense, but often share with oils a poor solubility in water. Essential oils often have an odor and are therefore used in food flavoring and perfumery. They are usually prepared by fragrance extraction techniques (such as distillation, cold pressing, or solvent extraction). Essential oils are distinguished from aroma oils (essential oils and aroma compounds in an oily solvent), infusions in a vegetable oil, absolutes, and concretes. Typically, essential oils are highly complex mixtures of often hundreds of individual aroma compounds.

Essential oils of Vitex agnus-cactus have been found in the fruits and in the leaves: the oil of leaves, unripe and ripe fruits differ in compounds, 50 compounds were identified in the oil of unripe fruits, 51 compounds in the oil of ripe fruits and 46 compounds in the oil of the leaves, 1,8-cineole and sabinene are the main monoterpene components and beta-caryophyllene is the major sesquiterpene compound found in the fruits of Vitex agnus-castus.[6]

Agar oils

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Agar oil distilled from agarwood (Aquilaria malaccensis). Highly prized for its fragrance.[7]

  • Ajwain oil, distilled from the leaves of (Carum copticum). Oil contains 35–65% thymol.[8]
  • Angelica root oil, distilled from the Angelica archangelica.

Anise oils

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The spice star anise is distilled to make star anise oil. Credit: Fanghong.{{free media}}

Anise oil, from the Pimpinella anisum, rich odor of licorice

  • Asafoetida oil, used to flavor food.
  • Balsam of Peru, from the Myroxylon, used in food and drink for flavoring, in perfumes and toiletries for fragrance
  • Basil oil, used in making perfumes, as well as in aromatherapy
  • Bay leaf oil is used in perfumery and aromatherapy
  • Bergamot oil, used in aromatherapy and in perfumes.
  • Black pepper oil is distilled from the berries of Piper nigrum.
  • Buchu oil, made from the buchu shrub. Considered toxic and no longer widely used. Formerly used medicinally.
  • Birch oil used in aromatherapy
  • Camphor oil Cinnamomum camphora used in cosmetics and household cleaners.[9]
  • Cannabis flower essential oil, used as a flavoring in foods, primarily candy and beverages. Also used as a scent in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps, and candles.[10]
  • Calamodin oil or calamansi essential oil comes from a citrus tree in the Philippines extracted via cold press or steam distillation.
  • Caraway seed oil, used a flavoring in foods. Also used in mouthwashes, toothpastes, etc. as a flavoring agent.[11]
  • Cardamom seed oil, used in aromatherapy. Extracted from seeds of subspecies of Zingiberaceae (ginger). Also used as a fragrance in soaps, perfumes, etc.
  • Carrot seed oil, used in aromatherapy.
  • Cedar oil (or cedarwood oil), primarily used in perfumes and fragrances.

Chamomile oils

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German chamomile (Matricaria recutita) essential oil is contained in a clear glass vial. Credit: Itineranttrader.{{free media}}
  • Chamomile oil, there are many varieties of chamomile but only two are used in aromatherapy, Roman and German. German chamomile contains a higher level of the chemical azulene
  • Calamus oil, Acorus calamus, Used in perfumery and formerly as a food additive
  • Cinnamon oil, used for flavoring
  • Cistus ladanifer leaves and flowers used in perfumery.
  • Citron oil, used in Ayurveda and perfumery.
  • Citronella oil, from a plant related to lemon grass is used as an insect repellent

Clary sage oils

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Sometimes called muscatel. Made by steam or water distillation of Salvia sclarea flowering tops and foliage. Yields range from 0.7 to 1.5%. A pale yellow to yellow liquid with a herbaceous odor and a winelike bouquet. Produced in large quantities in France, Russia and Morocco. The oil contains linalyl acetate, linalool and other terpene alcohols (sclareol), as well as their acetates.[12]

Clary Sage oil is from Salvia sclarea, used in perfumery and as an additive flavoring in some alcoholic beverages.[13]

  • Clove oil used in perfumery and medicinally.

Coconut oils

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Coconut oil contains only trace amounts of fatty acids (about 0.03 % by mass).[14] Instead it contains esters. In the following content, the expressions "fatty acids" and "acid" below refer to esters rather than carboxylic acids.

The approximate concentration of fatty acids in coconut oil (midpoint of range in source):

Approximate concentration of fatty acids in coconut oil
Type of fatty acid Saturation Percentage
caprylic acid saturated C8 7
capric acid saturated C10 8
lauric acid saturated C12 48
myristic acid saturated C14 16
palmitic acid saturated C16 9.5
oleic acid monounsaturated C18:1 6.5
Other polyunsaturated 5

Coconut oil is used for skin, food, and hair.

Coffee oils

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Coffee oil is used to flavor food. Because the coffee grounds are in direct contact with the water, all the coffee oils remain in the liquid, making it a stronger beverage.

  • Coriander oil
  • Costmary oil (bible leaf oil), Tanacetum balsamita, formerly used medicinally in Europe; still used as such in southwest Asia.[15] Discovered to contain up to 12.5% of the toxin β-thujone.[16]
  • Costus root oil
  • Cranberry seed oil, equally high in omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, primarily used in the cosmetic industry.
  • Cubeb oil, used to flavor foods.
  • Cumin seed oil/black seed oil, used as a flavor, particularly in meat products
  • Fokienia, Cypress oil, used in cosmetics
  • Cypriol oil
  • Curry leaf oil, used to flavor food.

Dalmatian sage oils

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Also called English, Garden, and True sage oil. Made by steam distillation of Salvia officinalis partially dried leaves. Yields range from 0.5 to 1.0%. A colorless to yellow liquid with a warm camphoraceous, thujone-like odor and sharp and bitter taste. The main components of the oil are thujone (50%), camphor, pinene, and cineol.[17]

Davana oils

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Davana essential oil is shown. Credit: Itineranttrader.{{free media}}

Davana oil, from the Artemisia pallens, is used as a perfume ingredient.

  • Dill oil, chemically almost identical to Caraway seed oil. High carvone content.
  • Elecampane oil
  • Elemi oil, used as a perfume and fragrance ingredient. Comes from the oleoresins of Canarium luzonicum and Canarium ovatum which are common in the Philippines.

Eucalyptus oils

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Essential oil of Eucalyptus is shown. Credit: Itineranttrader.{{free media}}

Eucalyptus oil, historically used as a germicide.

  • Fennel seed oil
  • Fenugreek oil, used for cosmetics from ancient times.
  • Fir oil
  • Frankincense oil, used in aromatherapy and in perfumes.
  • Galangal oil, used to flavor food.
  • Galbanum oil, used in perfumery.[18][19]
  • Garlic oil is distilled from Allium sativum.
  • Geranium oil, also referred to as geranol. Used in herbal medicine, aromatherapy, and perfumery.[20]
  • Ginger oil, used medicinally in many cultures, and has been studied extensively as a nausea treatment, where it was found more effective than placebo.[21][22][23][24]
  • Goldenrod oil used in herbal medicine, Solidago, including treatment of urological problems.[25]
  • Grapefruit oil, extracted from the peel of the fruit. Used in aromatherapy. Contains 90% limonene.

Greek sage oils

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Made by steam distillation of Salvia triloba leaves. Grows in Greece and Turkey. Yields range from 0.25% to 4%. The oil contains camphor, thujone, and pinene, the dominant component being eucalyptol.[26]

  • Henna oil, used in body art. Known to be dangerous to people with certain enzyme deficiencies.[27] Pre-mixed pastes are considered dangerous, primarily due to adulterants.[28][29]
  • Helichrysum oil
  • Hickory nut oil
  • Horseradish oil
  • Hyssop
  • Idaho-grown Tansy
  • Jasmine oil, used for its flowery fragrance.

Judaean sage oils

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Made by steam distillation of Salvia judaica leaves. The oil contains mainly cubebene and ledol.[30]

  • Juniper berry oil, used as a flavor.
  • Laurus nobilis

Lavender oils

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A glass vial of lavender oil is shown. Credit: Itineranttrader.{{free media}}

Lavender oil is used primarily as a fragrance.

Two forms are distinguished, lavender flower oil, a colorless oil, insoluble in water, having a density of 0.885 g/mL; and lavender spike oil, a distillate from the herb Lavandula latifolia, having density 0.905 g/mL. Like all essential oils, it is not a pure compound; it is a complex mixture of phytochemicals, including linalool and linalyl acetate.

Lavender oil has long been used as a perfume, for aromatherapy, and for skin applications.[31][32] Lavender oil is used in massage therapy as a way of inducing relaxation through direct skin contact.[33]

Lavender oil is poisonous, due to the components linalyl acetate and linalool, and should not be ingested.[34] In Australia, lavender oil is one of the many essential oils that have been increasingly causing cases of poisoning, mostly of children. In the period 2014-2018 there were 271 reported cases in New South Wales, accounting for 6.1% of essential oil poisoning incidents.[35]

Other potential adverse effects include a sedative effect and contact dermatitis as an allergic reaction, possibly resulting from major lavender oil constituents: camphor, terpinen-4-ol, linalool and linalyl acetate.[36][31]

  • Ledum
  • Lemon oil, similar in fragrance to the fruit. Unlike other essential oils, lemon oil is usually cold pressed. Used in cosmetics.
  • Lemongrass. Lemongrass is a highly fragrant grass from India. The oil is very useful for insect repellent.
  • Lime
  • Litsea cubeba oil, lemon-like scent, often used in perfumes and aromatherapy.
  • Linalool
  • Mandarin orange
  • Marjoram
  • Melissa oil (Lemon balm), sweet smelling oil
  • Mint oil, used in flavoring toothpastes, mouthwashes and pharmaceuticals, as well as in aromatherapy, Mentha arvensis oil.
  • Moringa oleifera oil, can be used directly on the skin and hair. It can also be used in soap and as a base for other cosmetics.
  • Mountain Savory, Winter savory.
  • Mugwort oil, used in ancient times for medicinal and magical purposes. Currently considered to be a neurotoxin.
  • Mustard oil from mixing seeds with water, containing a high percentage of allyl isothiocyanate or other isothiocyanates, depending on the species of mustard
  • Myrrh oil, warm, slightly musty smell.
  • Myrtle, Myrtus communis.
  • Neem oil or neem tree oil
  • Neroli is produced from the blossom of the bitter orange tree.
  • Nutmeg oil
  • Orange oil, like lemon oil, cold pressed rather than distilled. Consists of 90% d-Limonene. Used as a fragrance, in cleaning products and in flavoring foods.
  • Oregano oil, contains thymol and carvacrol
  • Orris oil is extracted from the roots of the Florentine iris (Iris florentina), Iris germanica and Iris pallida. It is used as a flavouring agent, in perfume, and medicinally.[37]
  • Palo Santo, Bursera graveolens,
  • Parsley oil, used in soaps, detergents, colognes, cosmetics and perfumes, especially men's fragrances.
  • Patchouli oil, very common ingredient in perfumes.
  • Perilla essential oil, extracted from the leaves of the perilla plant. Contains about 50–60% perillaldehyde.
  • Pennyroyal oil, Mentha pulegium, highly toxic. It is abortifacient and can even in small quantities cause acute liver and lung damage.
  • Peppermint oil
  • Petitgrain
  • Pine oil, used as a disinfectant, and in aromatherapy.
  • Ravensara aromatica
  • Red Cedar, Juniperus virginiana.

Roman Chamomile oils

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Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile) essential oil

Chamomile essential oil contains sesquiterpenes, terpene lactones (including the blue compound, chamazulene), acetylene derivatives, and polyphenols, which contribute to the fragrance and may be extracted individually.[38]

  • Rose oil, distilled from rose petals, used primarily as a fragrance.
  • Rosehip oil, distilled from the seeds of the Rosa rubiginosa or Rosa mosqueta.
  • Rosemary oil, distilled from the flowers of Rosmarinus officinalis.
  • Rosewood oil, used primarily for skin care applications.

Myrrh oils

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An essential oil extracted from myrrh (Commiphora myrrha) is shown. Credit: Itineranttrader.{{free media}}

Myrrh is mentioned as a rare perfume.

Sandalwood oils

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A glass vial contains sandalwood oil. Credit: Itineranttrader.{{free media}}

Sandalwood oil is used primarily as a fragrance: pleasant and woody.[39]

  • Sassafras oil, from sassafras root bark. Used in aromatherapy, soap-making, perfumes, and the like. Formerly used as a spice, and as the primary flavoring of root beer, inter alia. Sassafras oil is heavily regulated in the United States due to its high safrole content.[40]
  • Savory oil, from Satureja species. Used in aromatherapy, cosmetic and soap-making applications.
  • Schisandra chinensis oil

Spanish sage oils

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Made by steam distillation of Salvia lavandulifolia leaves and twigs. A colorless to pale yellow liquid with the characteristic camphoraceous odor. Unlike Dalmatian sage oil, Spanish sage oil contains no or only traces of thujone; camphor and eucalyptol are the major components.

  • Spearmint oil, often used in flavoring mouthwash and chewing gum, among other applications.
  • Spikenard
  • Spruce oil
  • Star anise oil, highly fragrant oil using in cooking. Also used in perfumery and soaps, has been used in toothpastes, mouthwashes, and skin creams.[41] 90% of the world's star anise crop is used in the manufacture of Tamiflu, a drug used to treat influenza, and is hoped to be useful for H5N1 (avian flu).
  • Tangerine
  • Tarragon oil, distilled from Artemisia dracunculus

Tea tree oils

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Tea tree oil is extracted from Melaleuca alternifolia.

  • Thyme oil
  • Tsuga belongs to the pine tree family.

Turmeric oils

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The golden yellow color of turmeric is due to curcumin.[42] It also contains an orange-colored (essential) volatile oil.[43]

Valerian oils

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Valerian (V. officinalis) essential oil is shown in a vial. Credit: Itineranttrader.{{free media}}

The chief constituent of Valerian is a yellowish-green to brownish-yellow oil present in the dried root, varying in content from 0.5 to 2.0%. This variation in quantity may be determined by location; a dry, stony soil yields a root richer in oil than moist, fertile soil.[44] The volatile oils that form the active ingredient are pungent, somewhat reminiscent of well-matured cheese, though some people remain partial to the earthy scent, others find it unpleasant, comparing the odor to that of unwashed feet.[45]

  • Warionia, used as a perfume ingredient
  • Vetiver oil (khus oil) a thick, amber oil, primarily from India. Used as a fixative in perfumery, and in aromatherapy.
  • Western red cedar
  • Wintergreen

Yarrow oils

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Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) essential oil is in a colorless glass vial. Credit: Itineranttrader.{{free media}}

Yarrow can be used for dying wool as it contains apigenin and luteolin. Depending on the mordant the color may be green to yellow.[46]

The dark blue essential oil of yarrow contains chemicals called proazulenes.[47]

  • Ylang-ylang

Lipids

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Def. any "of a group of organic compounds including the fats, oils, waxes, sterols, and triglycerides,[48] characterized by being insoluble in water,[49] and account for most of the fat present in the human body"[49] is called a lipid.

Lipids can be classified by the way that they are made by an organism, their chemical structure and their limited solubility in water compared to oils, have a high carbon and hydrogen content and are considerably lacking in oxygen compared to other organic compounds and minerals; they tend to be relatively nonpolar molecules, but may include both polar and nonpolar regions as in the case of phospholipids and steroids.[50]

Petroleum

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Def. a "flammable liquid ranging in color from clear to very dark brown and black, consisting mainly of hydrocarbons, occurring naturally in deposits under the Earth's surface"[51] is called a petroleum.

Def. "any compound derived from petroleum or natural gas"[52] is called a petrochemical.

Crude oil, or petroleum, and its refined components, collectively termed petrochemicals, originates from ancient fossilized organic materials, such as zooplankton and algae, which geochemical processes convert into oil.[53]

A 42-US-gallon (35 imp gal; 160 L) barrel of crude oil produces approximately 10 US gallons (8.3 imp gal; 38 L) of diesel, 4 US gallons (3.3 imp gal; 15 L) of jet fuel, 19 US gallons (16 imp gal; 72 L) of gasoline, 7 US gallons (5.8 imp gal; 26 L) of other products, 3 US gallons (2.5 imp gal; 11 L) split between heavy fuel oil and liquified petroleum gases,[54] and 2 US gallons (1.7 imp gal; 7.6 L) of heating oil. The total production of a barrel of crude into various products results in an increase to 45 US gallons (37 imp gal; 170 L).[54]

Petrochemicals are the refined components of crude oil[55]

Cooking oils

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Cooking oils are derived either from animal fat, as butter, lard and other types, or plant oils from the olive, corn (maize), sunflowers and many other species.[56]

Animal oils

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Whale oil is preferred for lubricating clocks, because it does not evaporate, leaving dust, although its use was banned in the USA in 1980.[57]

In the 18th and 19th centuries, whale oil was commonly used for lamps, which was replaced with natural gas and then electricity.[58]

Vegetable oils

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Properties of vegetable oils[59][60]
Type Processing
treatment[61]		 Saturated
fatty acids		 Monounsaturated
fatty acids		 Polyunsaturated
fatty acids		 Smoke point
Total[59] Oleic
acid
(ω-9)		 Total[59] α-Linolenic
acid
(ω-3)		 Linoleic
acid
(ω-6)		 ω-6:3
ratio
Almond oil 216 °C (421 °F)[62]
Avocado oil[63] 11.6 70.6 52-66[64] 13.5 1 12.5 12.5:1 250 °C (482 °F)[65]
Black walnut[66] 3.5 15.4 36.4 2.7 33.8 12.5:1
Brazil nut[67] 24.8 32.7 31.3 42.0 0.1 41.9 419:1 208 °C (406 °F)[68]
Canola oil[69] 7.4 63.3 61.8 28.1 9.1 18.6 2:1 238 °C (460 °F)[68]
Cashew oil
Chia seed
Cocoa butter oil
Coconut oil[70] 82.5 6.3 6 1.7 175 °C (347 °F)[68]
Corn oil[71] 12.9 27.6 27.3 54.7 1 58 58:1 232 °C (450 °F)[72]
Cottonseed oil[73] 25.9 17.8 19 51.9 1 54 54:1 216 °C (420 °F)[72]
Cottonseed oil[74] Hydrogenated 93.6 1.5 0.6 0.2 0.3 1.5:1
Grape seed oil   10.5 14.3 14.3   74.7 - 74.7 very high 216 °C (421 °F)[75]
Hemp oil[76] 7.0 9.0 9.0 82.0 22.0 54.0 2.5:1 166 °C (330 °F)[77]
Linseed oil[78] 9.0 18.4 18 67.8 53 13 0.2:1 107 °C (225 °F)
Mustard oil
Olive oil[79] 13.8 73.0 71.3 10.5 0.7 9.8 14:1 193 °C (380 °F)[68]
Palm oil[80] 49.3 37.0 40 9.3 0.2 9.1 45.5:1 235 °C (455 °F)
Palm oil[81] Hydrogenated fat 88.2 5.7 0
Peanut oil[82] 20.3 48.1 46.5 31.5 0 31.4 very high 232 °C (450 °F)[72]
Pecan oil
Perilla oil
Rice bran oil 232 °C (450 °F)[83]
Safflower oil[84] 7.5 75.2 75.2 12.8 0 12.8 very high 212 °C (414 °F)[68]
Sesame oil[85] ? 14.2 39.7 39.3 41.7 0.3 41.3 138:1
Soybean oil[86] Partially hydrogenated 14.9 43.0 42.5 37.6 2.6 34.9 13.4:1
Soybean oil[87] 15.6 22.8 22.6 57.7 7 51 7.3:1 238 °C (460 °F)[72]
St. John's oil[88]
Sunflower oil[89] 10.3 19.5 19.5 65.7 0 65.7 very high 227 °C (440 °F)[72]
Sunflower oil (< 60% linoleic)[90] 10.1 45.4 45.3 40.1 0.2 39.8 199:1
Sunflower oil (> 70% oleic)[91] 9.9 83.7 82.6 3.8 0.2 3.6 18:1 232 °C (450 °F)[92]
Vigna mungo
Walnut oil[93] unrefined 9.1 22.8 22.2 63.3 10.4 52.9 5:1 160 °C (320 °F)[62]
The nutritional values are expressed as percent (%) by mass of total fat.

Almond oils

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Sweet Almond (Prunus dulcis) Oil is shown in clear glass vial. Credit: Itineranttrader.{{free media}}

Almonds are a rich source of oil, with 50% of kernel dry mass as fat (whole almond nutrition table). In relation to total dry mass of the kernel, almond oil contains 32% monounsaturated oleic acid (an omega-9 fatty acid), 13% linoleic acid (a polyunsaturated Omega-6 fatty acid|omega-6 essential fatty acid), and 10% saturated fatty acid (mainly as palmitic acid, USDA link in table). Linolenic acid, a polyunsaturated omega-3 fat, is not present (table). Almond oil is a rich source of vitamin E, providing 261% of the Daily Value per 100 ml (table).

When almond oil is analyzed separately and expressed per 100 grams as a reference mass, the oil provides 3,700 kJ (884 kcal) of food energy, 8 grams of saturated fat (81% of which is palmitic acid), 70 grams of oleic acid, and 17 grams of linoleic acid (oil table).

Oleum amygdalae, the fixed oil, is prepared from either sweet or bitter almonds, and is a glyceryl oleate with a slight odour and a nutty taste. It is almost insoluble in ethanol but readily soluble in chloroform or diethyl ether. Almond oil is obtained from the dried kernel of almonds.[94] Sweet almond oil is used as a carrier oil in aromatherapy and cosmetics while bitter almond oil, containing benzaldehyde, is used as a food flavouring and in perfume.[95]

Annatto oils

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Virgim oil of Urucum or annatto oil is shown. Credit: P. S. Sena.{{free media}}

Annatto oil is also rich in tocotrienols, beta-carotene, essential oils, saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, flavonoids, and vitamin C.[96]

Bixa orellana is a shrub native to a region between northern South America and Mexico.[97][98] Bixa orellana is best known as the source of annatto, a natural orange-red condiment (also called achiote or bijol) obtained from the waxy arils that cover its seeds.[97][98]

Calendula oils

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According to sixteenth-century Englishman John Gerard, every proper soup of Dutch cuisine in his era would include Calendula petals.[99]

The petals are edible and can be used fresh in salads or dried and used to color cheese or as a substitute for saffron.[100] It can be used to add color to soups, stews, poultry dishes, custards and liquors.[99]

The common name for Calendula officinalis in Britain is 'pot-marigold,' named so because of its use in broths and soups.[101]

The petals and pollens of Calendula officinalis contain triterpenoid esters and the carotenoids:[102] flavoxanthin and auroxanthin (antioxidants and the source of the yellow-orange coloration).[103] The leaves and stems contain other carotenoids, mostly lutein (80%), zeaxanthin (5%), and beta-carotene.[103] Plant extracts are also widely used by cosmetics, presumably due to presence of compounds such as saponins, resins, and essential oils.[104]

The flowers of Calendula officinalis contain flavonol glycosides, triterpene oligoglycosides, oleanane-type triterpene glycosides, saponins, and a sesquiterpene glucoside.[105][106] Calendula flowers are a rich source of lutein, containing 29.8 mg/100g.[107]

Canola oils

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The official definition of canola is "Seeds of the genus Brassica (Brassica napus, Brassica rapa, or Brassica juncea) from which the oil shall contain less than 2% erucic acid in its fatty acid profile and the solid component shall contain less than 30 micromoles of any one or any mixture of 3-butenyl glucosinolate, 4-pentenyl glucosinolate, 2-hydroxy-3 butenyl glucosinolate, and 2-hydroxy- 4-pentenyl glucosinolate per gram of air-dry, oil-free solid."[108]

Rapeseed oil had a distinctive taste and a disagreeable greenish color, due to the presence of chlorophyll and contained a high concentration of erucic acid.[109]

Canola was bred from rapeseed cultivars of B. napus and B. rapa at the University of Manitoba, Canada,[110][111] having then a different nutritional profile than present-day oil in addition to much less erucic acid.[112] Canola was originally a trademark name of the Rapeseed Association of Canada, and the name was a condensation of "Can" from Canada and "OLA " meaning "Oil, low acid",[113][114] but is now a generic term for edible varieties of rapeseed oil in North America and Australasia.[115] The change in name serves to distinguish it from natural rapeseed oil, which has much higher erucic acid content.

Canola oil is considered safe for human consumption,[116][117] and has a relatively low amount of saturated fat, a substantial amount of monounsaturated fat, with roughly a 2:1 mono- to polyunsaturated fats ratio.[118]

"Limited and not conclusive scientific evidence suggests that eating about 1 1/2 tablespoons (19 grams) of canola oil daily may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease due to the unsaturated fat content in canola oil. To achieve this possible benefit, canola oil is to replace a similar amount of saturated fat and not increase the total number of calories you eat in a day. One serving of this product contains [x] grams of canola oil."[119]

There is a substantial reduction in total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and an increase in tocopherol levels and improved insulin sensitivity, compared with other sources of dietary fat.[118]

Health effects from consuming plant oils rich in alpha-linolenic acid, including canola, stated that there was moderate benefit for lower risk of cardiovascular diseases, bone fractures, and type-2 diabetes.[120]

Compound Family % of total
Oleic acid ω-9 61%[121]
Linoleic acid ω-6 21%[121]
Alpha-linolenic acid ω-3 11%[121] 9%[122][123]
Saturated fatty acids 7%[121]
Palmitic acid 4%[122]
Stearic acid 2%[122]
Trans fat 0.4%[124]
Erucic acid 0.01%[125]<0.1%[126][127]

Paintings

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The oldest known extant oil paintings date from 650 AD.[128]

Lamp oils

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Whale oil is preferred for lubricating clocks, because it does not evaporate, leaving dust, although its use was banned in the USA in 1980.[129]

In the 18th and 19th centuries, whale oil was commonly used for lamps, which was replaced with natural gas and then electricity.[130]

See also

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References

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  1. ↑ Polyglot (16 July 2003). "oil". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 17 July 2021. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help)
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  3. ↑ Dmh (12 March 2004). "fat". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 17 July 2021. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  4. ↑ Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press
  5. ↑ SemperBlotto (14 May 2005). "essential oil". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 10 August 2021. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  6. ↑ Stojković, Dejan; Soković, Marina; Glamočlija, Jasmina; Džamić, Ana; Ćirić, Ana; Ristić, Mihailo; Grubišić, Dragoljub (2011). "Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of Vitex agnus-castus L. fruits and leaves essential oils". Food Chemistry 128 (4): 1017–1022. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.04.007. 
  7. ↑ "Agar". Nagaon. Retrieved 2006-11-17.
  8. ↑ Singh, Gurdip; Maurya, Sumitra; Catalan, C.; de Lampasona, M. P. (June 2004). "Chemical Constituents, Antifungal and Antioxidative Effects of Ajwain Essential Oil and Its Acetone Extract". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 52 (11): 3292–3296. doi:10.1021/jf035211c. PMID 15161185. 
  9. ↑ Chen, Weiyang; Vermaak, Ilze; Viljoen, Alvaro (2013-05-10). "Camphor—A Fumigant during the Black Death and a Coveted Fragrant Wood in Ancient Egypt and Babylon—A Review". Molecules 18 (5): 5434–5454. doi:10.3390/molecules18055434. PMID 23666009. 
  10. ↑ Hemp: A New Crop with New Uses for North America, from the Purdue University NewCROP Web site.
  11. ↑ Caraway oil, from the Victoria, Australia Department of Primary Industries Web site
  12. ↑ George A. Burdock (2010). CLARY OIL, In: Fenaroli's Handbook of Flavor Ingredients (6th ed.). Taylor & Francis. pp. 327–328. ISBN 978-1-4200-9077-2. 
  13. ↑ Clebsch, Betsy; Barner, Carol D. (2003). The New Book of Salvias. Timber Press. p. 261. ISBN 978-0-88192-560-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=NM0iwB8GrQYC&pg=PA261. 
  14. ↑ Kratzeisen, M. (2010). "Influence of free fatty acid content of coconut oil on deposit and performance of plant oil pressure stoves". Fuel 89 (7): 1583-1589. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2009.08.038. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016236109003986. Retrieved 30 April 2021. 
  15. ↑ Cumo, Christopher (2013). Encyclopedia of Cultivated Plants A-F. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. pp. 329–332. ISBN 978-1-59884-774-1. 
  16. ↑ Tanacetum Balsamita L.: A Medicinal Plant from Guadalajara (Spain), ISHS Acta Horticulturae 306: International Symposium on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, XXIII IHC
  17. ↑ Karl-Georg Fahlbusch (2007), Flavors and Fragrances, In: Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (7th ed.), Wiley, p. 113, doi:10.1002/14356007.a11_141
  18. ↑ LAWRENCE, B.M; "Progress in Essential Oils" 'Perfumer and Flavorist' August/September 1978 vol 3, No 4 p 54
  19. ↑ McANDREW, B.A; MICHALKIEWICZ, D.M; "Analysis of Galbanum Oils". Dev Food Sci. Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publications 1988 v 18 pp 573 – 585
  20. ↑ "Pelargoniums - An Herb Society of America Fact Sheet" (PDF). The Herb Society of America. 2006. Retrieved 20 December 2012.
  21. ↑ "Ginger, NCCIH Herbs at a Glance". US National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
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  23. ↑ Ernst, E.; Pittler, M.H. (1 March 2000). "Efficacy of ginger for nausea and vomiting: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials". British Journal of Anaesthesia 84 (3): 367–371. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.bja.a013442. PMID 10793599. 
  24. ↑ O'Connor, Anahad (August 21, 2007). "The Claim: Eating Ginger Can Cure Motion Sickness". The New York Times.
  25. ↑ Melzig, M. F. (November 2004). "Goldenrod--a classical exponent in the urological phytotherapy". Wiener medizinische Wochenschrift 154 (21–22): 523–7. doi:10.1007/s10354-004-0118-4. ISSN 0043-5341. PMID 15638071. 
  26. ↑ Ivana Cvetkovikj (2015), "Essential oil composition of Salvia fruticosa Mill. populations from Balkan Peninsula" (PDF), Macedonian Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 61 (1)
  27. ↑ Raupp P, Hassan JA, Varughese M, Kristiansson B (November 2001). "Henna causes life threatening haemolysis in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency". Archives of Disease in Childhood 85 (5): 411–2. doi:10.1136/adc.85.5.411. PMID 11668106. 
  28. ↑ Dron P, Lafourcade MP, Leprince F, (June 2007). "Allergies associated with body piercing and tattoos: a report of the Allergy Vigilance Network". European Annals of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 39 (6): 189–92. PMID 17713170. 
  29. ↑ Kang IJ, Lee MH (July 2006). "Quantification of para-phenylenediamine and heavy metals in henna dye". Contact Dermatitis 55 (1): 26–9. doi:10.1111/j.0105-1873.2006.00845.x. PMID 16842550. 
  30. ↑ Andrea Böszörményi (2009). "Chemical and Genetic Relationships among Sage (Salvia officinalis L.) Cultivars and Judean Sage (Salvia judaica Boiss.)". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 57 (11). doi:10.1021/jf9005092. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Sarkic, Asja; Stappen, Iris (12 January 2018). "Essential oils and their single compounds in cosmetics: A critical review". Cosmetics 5 (1): 11. doi:10.3390/cosmetics5010011. ISSN 2079-9284. 
  32. ↑ The New Perfume Handbook (2nd ed.). Blackie Academic & Professional. 1997. ISBN 978-0-7514-0403-6. 
  33. ↑ "Lavender and sleep: A systematic review of the evidence". European Journal of Integrative Medicine 4 (4): e436–e447. 2012. doi:10.1016/j.eujim.2012.08.001. 
  34. ↑ "Lavender oil". MedlinePlus. U.S. National Library of Medicine, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved January 9, 2020. Poisonous Ingredient: It is mainly the linalyl acetate and linalool in lavender oil that are poisonous.
  35. ↑ "Essential oil exposures in Australia: analysis of cases reported to the NSW Poisons Information Centre". The Medical Journal of Australia 212 (3): 132–133. November 2019. doi:10.5694/mja2.50403. PMID 31709543. https://sydney.edu.au/news-opinion/news/2019/12/09/essential-oil-poisoning-calls-on-the-rise-children-most-affected.html. 
  36. ↑ "An Overview of the Biological Effects of Some Mediterranean Essential Oils on Human Health". BioMed Research International 2017: 9268468. 5 November 2017. doi:10.1155/2017/9268468. PMID 29230418. PMC 5694587. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5694587/. 
  37. ↑ "Orris oil". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2006-11-20.
  38. ↑ "Chamomile". Drugs.com. 10 December 2020. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
  39. ↑ FAO. "Sandalwood oil". Flavours and fragrances of plant origin. https://web.archive.org/web/20060719132056/http://www.fao.org/docrep/V5350e/V5350e08.htm. Retrieved 2006-07-25. 
  40. ↑ "Title 21 Code of Federal Regulations". January 27, 2012. Retrieved May 18, 2016.
  41. ↑ J.E. Simon, A.F. Chadwick; L.E. Craker (1984). "Anise". Herbs: An Indexed Bibliography. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/med-aro/factsheets/ANISE.html. , cited on the Purdue Center for New Crops Web site
  42. ↑ "Curcumin". PubChem, US National Library of Medicine. 21 November 2020. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
  43. ↑ "E100: Curcumin". UKfoodguide.net. Retrieved 14 April 2017.
  44. ↑ "Valerian". Botanical.com. Retrieved 2007-04-15.
  45. ↑ Harrington, H.D., Edible Native Plants Of The Rocky Mountains, The University of New Mexico Press, 1967, LCCN 67-29685, p. 225
  46. ↑ Kiumarsi; Abomahboub; Rashedi; Parvinzadeh (2009). "Achillea Millefolium, a New Source of Natural Dye for Wool Dyeing". Progress in Color, Colorants and Coatings 2 (2): 87–93. https://www.sid.ir/en/journal/ViewPaper.aspx?ID=226555. 
  47. ↑ Michler, Barbara; Arnold, Carl-Gerold (1999). "Predicting Presence of Proazulenes in the Achillea millefolium Group". Folia Geobotanica 34 (1): 143–161. doi:10.1007/BF02803081. 
  48. ↑ Poccil (18 October 2004). "lipid". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 17 July 2021. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 141.157.16.194 (30 September 2005). "lipid". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 17 July 2021. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  50. ↑ Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter. Molecular Biology of the Cell. New York: Garland Science, 2002, pp. 62, 118-119.
  51. ↑ Stalker~enwiktionary (13 November 2003). "petroleum". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 2015-01-09. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  52. ↑ SemperBlotto (18 October 2005). "petrochemical'". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 17 July 2021. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  53. ↑ Kvenvolden, Keith A. (2006). "Organic geochemistry – A retrospective of its first 70 years". Organic Geochemistry 37: 1. doi:10.1016/j.orggeochem.2005.09.001. https://zenodo.org/record/1000677. 
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) — Retrieved 2011-10-02.
  55. ↑ Kostianoy, Andrey G.; Lavrova, Olga Yu (2014-07-08). Oil Pollution in the Baltic Sea. Springer. ISBN 9783642384769. https://books.google.com/books?id=Eya6BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA2. 
  56. ↑ Brown, Jessica. "Which cooking oil is the healthiest?". www.bbc.com. BBC. Retrieved 18 May 2021.
  57. ↑ "Bavarian Clock Haus and Frankenmuth Clock Company". Frankenmuth Clock Company & Bavarian Clock Haus.
  58. ↑ "Whale Oil". petroleumhistory.org.
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 59.2 "US National Nutrient Database, Release 28". United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. All values in this table are from this database unless otherwise cited.
  60. ↑ "Fats and fatty acids contents per 100 g (click for "more details"). Example: Avocado oil (user can search for other oils)". Nutritiondata.com, Conde Nast for the USDA National Nutrient Database, Standard Release 21. 2014. Retrieved 7 September 2017. Values from Nutritiondata.com (SR 21) may need to be reconciled with most recent release from the USDA SR 28 as of Sept 2017.
  61. ↑ "USDA Specifications for Vegetable Oil Margarine Effective August 28, 1996" (PDF).
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 "Smoke Point of Oils". Baseline of Health. Jonbarron.org.
  63. ↑ "Avocado oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  64. ↑ Feramuz Ozdemir; Ayhan Topuz (May 2003). "Changes in dry matter, oil content and fatty acids composition of avocado during harvesting time and post-harvesting ripening period" (PDF). Elsevier. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
  65. ↑ Marie Wong; Cecilia Requejo-Jackman; Allan Woolf (April 2010). "What is unrefined, extra virgin cold-pressed avocado oil?". Aocs.org. The American Oil Chemists’ Society. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
  66. ↑ "Black walnut oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  67. ↑ "Brazil nut oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 68.2 68.3 68.4 Katragadda, H. R.; Fullana, A. S.; Sidhu, S.; Carbonell-Barrachina, Á. A. (2010). "Emissions of volatile aldehydes from heated cooking oils". Food Chemistry 120: 59–65. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.09.070. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248511136. 
  69. ↑ "Canola oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  70. ↑ "Coconut oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  71. ↑ "Corn oil, industrial and retail, all purpose salad or cooking, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 72.2 72.3 72.4 Wolke, Robert L. (May 16, 2007). "Where There's Smoke, There's a Fryer". The Washington Post. Retrieved March 5, 2011.
  73. ↑ "Cottonseed oil, salad or cooking, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  74. ↑ "Cottonseed oil, industrial, fully hydrogenated, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  75. ↑ "Grape Seed Oil Compounds: Biological and Chemical Actions for Health". Nutrition and Metabolic Insights 9: 59–64. 2016. doi:10.4137/NMI.S32910. PMID 27559299. 
  76. ↑ "Efficacy of dietary hempseed oil in patients with atopic dermatitis". The Journal of Dermatological Treatment 16 (2): 87–94. April 2005. doi:10.1080/09546630510035832. PMID 16019622. 
  77. ↑ "Smoke points of oils" (PDF).
  78. ↑ "Linseed/Flaxseed oil, cold pressed, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  79. ↑ "Olive oil, salad or cooking, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  80. ↑ "Palm oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  81. ↑ "Palm oil, industrial, fully hydrogenated, filling fat, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  82. ↑ Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 61.
  83. ↑ "Rice bran oil". RITO Partnership. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
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  86. ↑ "Soybean oil, salad or cooking, (partially hydrogenated), fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  87. ↑ "Soybean oil, salad or cooking, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  88. ↑ "St. John's Wort". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health. September 2016. Retrieved 1 February 2018.
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  90. ↑ "Sunflower oil, less than 60% of total fats as linoleic acid, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  91. ↑ "Sunflower oil, high oleic - 70% or more as oleic acid, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  92. ↑ "Smoke Point of Oils". Baseline of Health. Jonbarron.org. 2012-04-17. Retrieved 2016-05-28.
  93. ↑ "Walnut oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, United States Department of Agriculture.
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  96. ↑ Ângela de Almeida Meireles, Maria; Lima Cavalcante de Albuquerque, Carolina. "Processo otimizado para obtenção de óleo rico em antioxidantes de urucum". Inova. Unicamp. Retrieved 2 June 2015.
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  99. ↑ 99.0 99.1 Rodale's Illustrated Encyclopedia of Herbs
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  101. ↑ MACHT, DAVID I. (1955). "CALENDULA OR MARIGOLD IN MEDICAL HISTORY AND IN SHAKESPEARE". Bulletin of the History of Medicine 29 (6): 491–502. ISSN 0007-5140. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44446726. 
  102. ↑ Sanae Kishimoto, Takashi Maoka, Katsuhiko Sumitomo, and Akemi Ohmiya (7 July 2005). "Analysis of Carotenoid Composition in Petals of Calendula (Calendula officinalis L.)". Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry 69 (11): 2122-2128. doi:10.1271/bbb.69.2122. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1271/bbb.69.2122. Retrieved 9 August 2021. 
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  105. ↑ Ukiya M; Akihisa; Yasukawa; Tokuda; Suzuki; Kimura (2006). "Anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor-promoting, and cytotoxic activities of constituents of pot marigold (Calendula officinalis) flowers". J Nat Prod 69 (12): 1692–1696. doi:10.1021/np068016b. PMID 17190444. 
  106. ↑ Yoshikawa M; Murakami; Kishi; Kageura; Matsuda (2001). "Medicinal flowers. III. Marigold.(1): hypoglycemic, gastric emptying inhibitory, and gastroprotective principles and new oleanane-type triterpene oligolycosides, calendasaponins A, B, C, and D, from Egyptian Calendula officinalis". Chem Pharm Bull 49 (7): 863–70. doi:10.1248/cpb.49.863. PMID 11456093. 
  107. ↑ Manke Natchigal, A.; Oliveira Stringheta, A.C.; Corrêa Bertoldi, M.; Stringheta, P.C. (2012). "QUANTIFICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF LUTEIN FROM TAGETES (TAGETES PATULA L.) AND CALENDULA (CALENDULA OFFICINALIS L.) FLOWERS". Acta Hortic. 939: 309-314. https://www.actahort.org/books/939/939_40.htm. Retrieved 3 July 2019. 
  108. ↑ "What Is Canola?". Canola Council of Canada. Canola Council of Canada. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
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  111. ↑ "Baldur Rosmund Stefansson". The Canadian Encyclopedia. (15 December 2015). Retrieved on 4 September 2019.
  112. ↑ Barthet, V. "Canola". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved on 29 December 2008.
  113. ↑ Wrigley, Colin W.; Corke, Harold; Seetharaman, Koushik; Faubion, Jonathan (17 December 2015). Encyclopedia of Food Grains. Academic Press. p. 238. ISBN 978-1785397622. https://books.google.com/books?id=ce7tBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA238. 
  114. ↑ Canola Council of Canada (2016). "What is Canola?". Retrieved 16 December 2013.
  115. ↑ "Has canola become a generic trademark?". genericides.org. Retrieved 13 May 2021.
  116. ↑ Dupont, J; White, PJ; Johnston, HA; McDonald, BE; Grundy, SM; Bonanome, A (October 1989). "Food safety and health effects of canola oil". Journal of the American College of Nutrition 8 (5): 360–375. doi:10.1080/07315724.1989.10720311. PMID 2691543. 
  117. ↑ Zeratsky, Katherine (2009). "Canola Oil: Does it Contain Toxins?". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
  118. ↑ 118.0 118.1 "Evidence of health benefits of canola oil". Nutr. Rev. 71 (6): 370–85. 2013. doi:10.1111/nure.12033. PMID 23731447. PMC 3746113. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3746113/. 
  119. ↑ Schneeman BO (6 October 2006). "Qualified Health Claims, Letter of Enforcement Discretion U.S. Food and Drug Administration: Unsaturated Fatty Acids from Canola Oil and Reduced Risk of Coronary Heart Disease". US Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved 3 September 2008.
  120. ↑ Rajaram, S (2014). "Health benefits of plant-derived α-linolenic acid". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 100 Suppl 1: 443S–8S. doi:10.3945/ajcn.113.071514. PMID 24898228. 
  121. ↑ 121.0 121.1 121.2 121.3 "Comparison of Dietary Fats Chart" (PDF). Canola Council of Canada. Retrieved 3 September 2008.
  122. ↑ 122.0 122.1 122.2 USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 21 (2008)
  123. ↑ DeFilippis, Andrew P.; Sperling, Laurence S. "Understanding omega-3's" (PDF).
  124. ↑ USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 22 (2009)
  125. ↑ J. Barthet, Véronique J. (2015). "Quality of western Canadian Canola 2015" (PDF) (Press release). Canadian Grain Research Laboratory: Canadian Grain Commission. ISSN 1700-2222. Retrieved 21 December 2016.
  126. ↑ D.E., Seberry; D.W., McCaffery; T.M., Kingham (2016). "Quality of Australian canola 2015–16" (PDF) (Press release). Australia: NSW Department of Primary Industries – Australian Oilseeds Federation. ISSN 1322-9397. Retrieved 21 December 2016.
  127. ↑ Heidy Aguilera Fuentes, Paula; Jose Ogliaria, Paulo; Carlos Deschamps, Francisco; Barrera Arellano, Daniel; Mara Block, Jane (2011). "Agricultural Science Center". Avaliação da Qualidade de Óleos de Soja, Canola, Milho e Girassol Durante o Armazenamento (PDF) (Thesis). Florianópolis, Brazil: Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina. OCLC 817268651. Retrieved 21 December 2016.
  128. ↑ Rosella Lorenzi (February 19, 2008). "Oldest Oil Paintings Found in Afghanistan". Discovery News. Retrieved June 3, 2011.
  129. ↑ "Bavarian Clock Haus and Frankenmuth Clock Company". Frankenmuth Clock Company & Bavarian Clock Haus.
  130. ↑ "Whale Oil". petroleumhistory.org.

Further reading

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