Chemicals/Nickels

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This piece of Ni is about 3 cm in size. Credit: Materialscientist.{{free media}}

Native nickel has been described as serpentinite due to hydrothermal alteration of ultramafic rocks in New Caledonia and elsewhere.[1][2]

Nickel emissions[edit | edit source]

This is an emission-line spectrum for nickel over the visible range: 400-700 nm. Credit: McZusatz.{{free media}}

Nickel has an emission line occurring in the solar corona at 511.603 nm from Ni XIII.[3]

Nickel has an emission line occurring in the solar corona at 670.183 nm from Ni XV.[3]

Nickel has three emission lines occurring in the solar corona at 380.08 nm of Ni XIII and 423.14 nm and 431.1 of Ni XII.[3]

Nickel has an absorption band at 401.550-436.210 nm with an excitation potential of 4.01 eV.[4]

Transition metal minerals[edit | edit source]

Transition metals are often restricted to manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn), but generally include Sc through zinc (Zn), Y through cadmium (Cd), lanthanum through mercury, actinium through copernicium (Cn).

Niccolites[edit | edit source]

This is a polished slice of niccolite with witherite (white). Credit: AnemoneProjectors.{{free media}}

Niccolite has the chemical formula NiAs.[5]

Breithauptites[edit | edit source]

This is a specimen of Breithauptite on calcite from the Samson Mine, St Andreasberg, Harz Mountains, Lower Saxony, Germany. Credit: Leon Hupperichs.{{free media}}

Breithauptite is a nickel antimonide mineral with the simple formula NiSb. Breithauptite is a metallic opaque copper-red mineral crystallizing in the hexagonal - dihexagonal dipyramidal crystal system. It is typically massive to reniform in habit, but is observed as tabular crystals. It has a Mohs hardness of 3.5 to 4 and a specific gravity of 8.23.

It occurs in hydrothermal calcite veins associated with cobalt–nickel–silver ores.

Alloy minerals[edit | edit source]

"Grain size varies from 98 to 530 lm with an average of *150 lm. Minor [elements] oxidation [from an iron–nickel–chromium–cobalt–phosphorus alloy] is evidenced by the presence of a light brown and blue surface layer composed of very fine-grained (<1 lm) crystals on the surface."[6] "[T]he oxidation of minor elements in metallic alloys in the early solar system" is indicated to possess at instances a blue surface layer.[6]

Antitaenites[edit | edit source]

Antitaenite is a meteoritic metal alloy mineral composed of iron and nickel, 20-40% Ni (and traces of other elements) that has a face centered cubic crystal structure that exists as a new mineral species occurring in both iron meteorites and in chondrites[7]

The pair of minerals antitaenite and taenite constitute the first example in nature of two minerals that have the same crystal structure (face centered cubic) and can have the same chemical composition (same proportions of Fe and Ni) - but differ in their electronic structures: taenite has a high magnetic moment whereas antitaenite has a low magnetic moment.[8] This difference arises from a high-magnetic-moment to low-magnetic-moment transition occurring in the Fe-Ni bi-metallic alloy series.[9]

Awaruites[edit | edit source]

Awaruite pebble is from Josephine Creek, Josephine Creek District, Josephine County, Oregon, USA. Credit: Robert M. Lavinsky.{{free media}}

Awaruite has the chemical formula Ni
2Fe.[10]

Awaruite occurs in river placer deposits derived from serpentinized peridotites and ophiolites, also occurs as a rare component of meteorites, in association with native gold and magnetite in placers; with copper, heazlewoodite, pentlandite, violarite, chromite, and millerite in peridotites; with kamacite, allabogdanite, schreibersite and graphite in meteorites.[11]

It was first described in 1885 for an occurrence along Gorge River, near Awarua Bay, South Island, New Zealand, its type locality.[11][12][13]

Awaruite is also known as josephinite in an occurrence in Josephine County, Oregon where it is found as placer nuggets in stream channels and masses in serpentinized portions of the Josephine peridotite. Some nuggets contain andradite garnet.[14]

Awaruite occur as an ore mineral in a large low grade deposit in central British Columbia, some 90 km northwest of Fort St. James, disseminated in the Mount Sidney Williams ultramafic/ophiolite complex.[15]

Kamacites[edit | edit source]

Kamacite, Nantan (Nandan) iron meteorites, Nandan County, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China. Size: 4.8×3.0×2.8 cm. The Nantan irons, a witnessed fall in 1516, have a composition of 92.35% iron and 6.96% nickel. Credit: Robert M. Lavinsky.{{free media}}

Kamacite is an alpha-(Fe,Ni) alloy, major constituent of iron meteorites, with the proportion iron:nickel about 90:10; small quantities of other elements, such as cobalt, carbon, a metallic luster, gray color and no clear cleavage although the structure is isometric-hexoctahedral, density is around 8 g/cm³ and its hardness is 4 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness, sometimes called balkeneisen.[16]

"The principle constituent of a typical octahedrite meteorite with about 92% iron and 7% nickel."[17]

  1. Empirical Formula: Fe
    0.9    Ni
    0.1    .[16]
  2. Common Impurities: Co,C,P,S.[17]

Taenites[edit | edit source]

Taenite (Fe,Ni) is a mineral alloy found naturally on Earth mostly in iron meteorites, with nickel proportions of 20% up to 65%, one of four known Fe-Ni meteorite minerals: taenite, kamacite, tetrataenite, and antitaenite, is opaque with a metallic grayish to white color, isometric-hexoctahedral structure, density around 8 g/cm³, hardness i5 to 5.5 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness, magnetic, with a crystal lattice of c≈a= 3.582 Å ±0.002 Å.[18]

The Strunz classification is I/A.08-20, while the Dana classification is 1.1.11.2. It is a Hexoctahedral (cubic system) in structure."[19]

Tetrataenites[edit | edit source]

Tetrataenite is an ultra-rare, extraterrestrial iron nickel alloy, found only in meteorites. Credit: Robert M. Lavinsky.{{free media}}

"Tetrataenite is a native metal found in meteorites with the composition FeNi."[20]

It is one of the mineral phases found in meteoric iron.[21][22][23]

Octahedrites[edit | edit source]

This image is a cross-section of the Laguna Manantiales meteorite showing Widmanstätten patterns. Credit: Aram Dulyan.{{free media}}

Widmanstätten patterns, also called Thomson structures, are unique figures of long nickel-iron crystals, found in the octahedrite iron meteorites and some pallasites. They consist of a fine interleaving of kamacite and taenite bands or ribbons called lamellæ. Commonly, in gaps between the lamellæ, a fine-grained mixture of kamacite and taenite called plessite can be found.

Chrysoprases[edit | edit source]

Chrysoprase is an apple-green, microcrystalline variety of quartz. The green color has been attributed to nickel oxide impurity. Credit: James St. John.{{free media}}

Chrysoprase is an apple-green, microcrystalline variety of quartz, where the green color has been attributed to nickel oxide or nickel silicate impurity.

Nickel salts[edit | edit source]

M1 M2 formula name a Å b Å c Å β° V Å3 colour Nα Nβ Nγ Biaxial 2V other
K Cd K2Cd(SO
4)2 • 6H
2O 		Potassium cadmium sulfate hexahydrate[24]
Tl Co Tl2[Co(H
2O)6](SO
4)2 		Cobaltous thallium sulfate hexahydrate, Thallium hexaaquacobalt(II) sulfate, 9.227(1) 12.437(2) 6.220(1) 106.40(1)° 684.7 light red[25]
K Mg K2Mg(SO
4)2 • 6H
2O 		picromerite 9.04 12.24 6.095 104° 48'[26] colourless or white 1.460 1.462 1.472 biaxial (+) medium density=2.025g/cm3;[27] expanded second coordination sphere around Mg.[26]
Cs Mg Cs2[Mg(H
2O)6](SO
4)2 		Cesium hexaaquamagnesium sulphate 9.338(2) 12.849(4) 6.361(2) 107.07(2)° 729.6 colourless[28] 1.481 1.485 1.492 biaxial(+) medium density=2.689[29]
Rb Mn Rb2[Mn(H
2O)6](SO
4)2 		Dirubidium hexaaquamanganese sulfate(VI) 9.282(2) 12.600(2) 6.254(2) 105.94(2) 703.3Å3[30][31]
K Ni K2Ni(SO
4)2 • 6H
2O[32] 		Potassium Nickel Sulfate Hexahydrate[26] used as UV filter[33]
Rb Ni Rb2Ni(SO
4)2 • 6H
2O 		Rubidium Nickel Sulfate Hexahydrate 6.221 12.41 9.131 106.055° 677.43 001 surface has step growth of 4.6 Å, optical transmission bands at 250, 500 and 860 nm which are the same as nickel sulfate hexahydrate, but UV band transmits more. Heavy absorption 630-720 nm and 360-420 nm3 density 2.596 g cm−3.[33] stable to 100.5 °C solubility in g/100ml=0.178t + 4.735 MW=529.87
Cs Ni Cs2[Ni(H
2O)6](SO
4)2 		Caesium hexaaquanickel(II) sulphate, Cesium Nickel Sulfate Hexahydrate 9.259(2) 12.767(2) 6.358(1) 107.00(2)° 718.7[28] greenish blue 1.507 1.512 1.516 biaxial(-) very large density=2.883 [34] used as UV filter[33]
NH4 Ni (NH4)2Ni(SO
4)2 • 6H
2O 		nickel-boussingaultite[26][35] 9.186 12.468 6.424 684.0 blueish green.[36][37] density=1.918 cas=51287-85-5
Tl Ni Tl2Ni(SO
4)2 • 6H
2O 		Thallium hexaaquanickel(II) sulfate 9.161(2) 12.389(2) 6.210(2) 106.35(2)° 676.3 greenish blue[25] 1.602 1.615 1.620 biaxial(-) large density=3.763[38]
selenates
Cs Ni Cs2Ni(SeO4)2 • 6H
2O 		Dicaesium nickel selenate hexahydrate[39] 7.4674 7.9152 11.7972 106.363 669.04 light green

Garnierites[edit | edit source]

Garnierite is a green nickel ore. Credit: Didier Descouens.{{free media}}

Garnierite is a general name for a green nickel ore which is found in pockets and veins within weathered and serpentinized ultramafic rocks formed by lateritic weathering of ultramafic rocks and occurs in many nickel laterite deposits in the world and is an important nickel ore, having a large weight percent NiO.[40][41] As garnierite is not a valid mineral name according to the Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature and Classification (CNMNC), no definite composition or formula has been universally adopted. Some of the proposed compositions are all hydrous Ni-Mg silicates,[40][42] a general name for the Ni-Mg hydrosilicates which usually occur as an intimate mixture and commonly includes two or more of the following minerals: serpentine, talc, sepiolite, smectite, or chlorite,[43] and Ni-Mg silicates, with or without alumina, that have x-ray diffraction patterns typical of serpentine, talc, sepiolite, chlorite, vermiculite or some mixture of them all.[44]

Nickel sulfates[edit | edit source]

"The magnetic [susceptibility] of single crystals of NiSO
4·7H
2O [...] have been measured in the temperature range between liquid helium and room temperatures."[45]

"The seventh water molecule in the heptahydrate salt forms a hydrogen bond and the hexahydrate salt has not a hydrogen bond."[45]

"It has been shown that symmetry of crystalline field for NiSO
4·7H
2O is rhombic whereas that of α-NiSO
4·6H
2O is tetragonal."[45]

Willemseites[edit | edit source]

Falcondoite and willemseite are rare nickel, magnesium silicates found in a serpentinized harzbergite massif or an obducted ophiolite at a plate collision of oceanic crust with continental crust. Credit: Robert M. Lavinsky.{{free media}}

Falcondoite and willemseite in the image on the right are rare nickel, magnesium silicates found in a serpentinized harzbergite massif or an obducted ophiolite at a plate collision of oceanic crust with continental crust. The locality is in the Dominican Republic, which is the Type Locality for falcondoite. This very showy, bright green thin crust is mostly green falcondoite, with just a bit of lighter, olive willemseite.

Wllemseite has the chemical formula Ni3Si4O10(OH)2.

Hypogene nickels[edit | edit source]

In "the Arctic Archipelago and in parts of northern Baffin Island and Boothia Peninsula the glaciers were apparently cold-based and effected little erosion of the preglacial landscape."[46]

Nickel "occurs in concentrations far above the crustal average in basic and ultrabasic igneous rocks. Where a glacier has eroded nickel-enriched zones in basalts, gabbros, serpentinized periodotites, and similar basic or ultrabasic igneous rocks, or their metamorphic equivalents, nickel-enriched glacial debris may be spread out in the form of a glacial dispersal train."[46]

"Nickel occurs in unweathered glacial sediments in the same mineral phases as those in which it is found in rocks."[46]

"Where a glacier has overridden ultrabasic rocks, nickel may still be present in sulfide grains, but its presence in silicates such as olivine, serpentine, amphiboles, biotite, and talc, can lead to very high bulk nickel compositions in till or derived sediments."[46]

Supergene nickels[edit | edit source]

For "the Pinchi Mine area [...] mercury ore was transported over a distance of 12 km, as measured in the clay-sized fraction (< 0.002 mm) of till, and could have been transported over 24 km according to heavy mineral concentrates (specific gravity >3.3) of this same sediment. Antimony, chromium, and nickel dispersal trains were also detected in the region."[47]

See also[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Nickel on Mindat with location data
  2. ↑ Native nickel in the Handbook of Mineralogy
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 P. Swings (July 1943). "Edlén's Identification of the Coronal Lines with Forbidden Lines of Fe X, XI, XIII, XIV, XV; Ni XII, XIII, XV, XVI; Ca XII, XIII, XV; a X, XIV". The Astrophysical Journal 98 (07): 116-28. doi:10.1086/144550. 
  4. ↑ Kozo Sadakane; Minoru Ueta (August 1989). "Abundance Analysis of Sirius in the Blue-Violet Region". Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan 41 (2): 279-88. 
  5. ↑ Willard Lincoln Roberts; George Robert Rapp Jr.; Julius Weber (1974). Encyclopedia of Minerals. New York, New York, USA: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. pp. 121-2. ISBN 0-442-26820-3. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Dante S. Lauretta; Britney E. Schmidt (April 1, 2009). "Oxidation of Minor Elements from an Iron–Nickel–Chromium–Cobalt–Phosphorus Alloy in 17.3% CO2–H2 gas mixtures at 700–1000 °C". Oxidation of Metals 71 (3-4): 219-35. doi:10.1007/s11085-009-9140-7. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11085-009-9140-7. Retrieved 2013-06-01. 
  7. ↑ D.G. Rancourt and R.B. Scorzelli. Low Spin γ-Fe-Ni (γLS) Proposed as a New Mineral in Fe-Ni-Bearing Meteorites: Epitaxial Intergrowth of γLS and Tetrataenite as Possible Equilibrium State at ~20-40 at % Ni. Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 150 (1995) 30-36
  8. ↑ D.G. Rancourt, K. Lagarec, A. Densmore, R.A. Dunlap, J.I. Goldstein, R.J. Reisener, and R.B. Scorzelli. Experimental Proof of the Distinct Electronic Structure of a New Meteoritic Fe-Ni Alloy Phase. Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 191 (1999) L255-L260
  9. ↑ K. Lagarec, D.G. Rancourt, S.K. Bose, B. Sanyal, and R.A. Dunlap. Observation of a composition-controlled high-moment/low-moment transition in the face centered cubic Fe-Ni system: Invar effect is an expansion, not a contraction. Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 236 (2001) 107-130.
  10. ↑ GA Challis (September 1975). "Native nickel from the Jerry River, South Westland, New Zealand: an example of natural refining". Mineralogical Magazine 40 (311): 247-251. doi:10.1180/minmag.1975.040.311.05. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.627.4142&rep=rep1&type=pdf. Retrieved 6 November 2021. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 http://rruff.geo.arizona.edu/doclib/hom/awaruite.pdf Handbook of Mineralogy
  12. ↑ http://www.mindat.org/min-439.html Mindat.org
  13. ↑ http://www.webmineral.com/data/Awaruite.shtml Webmineral data
  14. ↑ John M. Bird and Maura S. Weathers, Origin of josephinite, Geochemical Journal, Vol. 13, pp. 41 to 55, 1979 [1]
  15. ↑ FPX Nickel Confirms Anticipated Timing for Completion of Preliminary Economic Assessment on Baptiste Nickel Deposit
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 http://webmineral.com/data/Kamacite.shtml#.YoMMDS1h0RY
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 https://www.mindat.org/min-2143.html
  18. ↑ Albertsen, F.; Knudsen, J. M.; Jensen, G. B. (Jun). "Structure of taenite in two iron meteorites J.". Nature 273 (5662): 453–454. doi:10.1038/273453a0. 
  19. ↑ "Taenite". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. February 27, 2013. Retrieved 2013-09-01.
  20. ↑ Tetrataenite. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. July 24, 2013. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrataenite. Retrieved 2013-09-01. 
  21. ↑ "Tetrataenite". webmineral.com.
  22. ↑ Mindat.org - Tetrataenite
  23. ↑ Handbook of Mineralogy - Tetrataenite
  24. ↑ Nyquist, Richard A.; Kagel, Ronald O. (30 March 1972). Handbook of Infrared and Raman Spectra of Inorganic Compounds and Organic Salts: Infrared Spectra of Inorganic Compounds. Academic Press. pp. 297–298. https://books.google.com/books?id=RhJg4WCbm0gC&pg=PA297. Retrieved 18 June 2013.  (also includes Ni Cu )
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Euler, Harald; Bruno Barbier; Alke Meents; Armin Kirfel (2009). "Crystal structures of Tutton′s salts , ". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie - New Crystal Structures 224 (3): 355–359. doi:10.1524/ncrs.2009.0157. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 Bosi, F.; G. Belardi; P. Ballirano (2009). "Structural features in Tutton's salts , with ". American Mineralogist 94 (1): 74–82. doi:10.2138/am.2009.2898. 
  27. ↑ Swanson, H. E.; H. F. McMurdie; M. C. Morris; E. H. Evans (September 1970). "Standard X-ray Diffraction Powder Patterns" (PDF). National Bureau of Standards Monograph 25 Section 8. National Bureau of Standards. p. 54. Retrieved 16 June 2013.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Euler, H.; B. Barbier; A. Meents; A. Kirfel (2003). "Crystal structure of Tutton's salts, , ". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie. New Crystal Structures 218 (4): 409–413. doi:10.1524/ncrs.2003.218.4.409. ftp://ftp.oldenbourg.de/pub/download/frei/ncs/218-4/409737_38_39_40_41_42.pdf. Retrieved 15 June 2013. 
  29. ↑ Swanson, H. E.; McMurdie, H. F.; Morris, M. C.; Evans, E. H. (September 1969). Standard X-ray Diffraction Powder Patterns: Section 7. Data for 81 Substances. Washington D.C: UNT Digital Library. p. 18. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc13215/m1/24/. Retrieved June 17, 2013. 
  30. ↑ "ICSD for WWW". Retrieved 15 June 2013.
  31. ↑ Euler, H.; B. Barbier; S. Klumpp; A. Kirfel (2000). "Crystal structure of Tutton's salts, , ". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie. New Crystal Structures 215 (4): 473–476. doi:10.1515/ncrs-2000-0408. ftp://ftp.oldenbourg.de/pub/download/frei/ncs/218-4/409737_38_39_40_41_42.pdf. Retrieved 15 June 2013. 
  32. ↑ Ananthanarayanan, V. (1961). "Raman spectra of crystalline double sulphates". Zeitschrift für Physik 163 (2): 144–157. doi:10.1007/BF01336872. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 Wang, Xia; Xinxin Zhuang; Genbo Su; Youping He (2008). "A new ultraviolet filter: (RNSH) single crystal". Optical Materials 31 (2): 233–236. doi:10.1016/j.optmat.2008.03.020. http://ir.fjirsm.ac.cn/bitstream/350002/5857/1/Wang-2008-A%20new%20ultraviolet%20fi.pdf. 
  34. ↑ Swanson, H. E.; McMurdie, H. F.; Morris, M. C.; Evans, E. H. (September 1969). Standard X-ray Diffraction Powder Patterns: Section 7. Data for 81 Substances. Washington D.C: UNT Digital Library. p. 23. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc13215/m1/29/. Retrieved June 17, 2013. 
  35. ↑ Montgomery, H.; E.C. Lingafelter (10 November 1964). "The crystal structure of Tutton's salts. II. Magnesium ammonium sulfate hexahydrate and nickel ammonium sulfate hexahydrate". Acta Crystallographica (International Union of Crystallography) 17 (11): 1478. doi:10.1107/s0365110x6400367x. 
  36. ↑ Morris, Marlene C; McMurdie, Howard F.; Evans, Eloise H.; Paretzkin, Boris; Hubbard, Camden R.; Carmel, Simon J. (1980). "Standard X-ray Diffraction Powder Patterns: Section 17. Data for 54 Substances". Final Report National Bureau of Standards. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc13209/m1/15/. 
  37. ↑ "The Monoclinic Double Sulphates Containing Ammonium. Completion of the Double Sulphate Series". January 1916.
  38. ↑ Swanson, H. E.; McMurdie, H. F.; Morris, M. C.; Evans, E. H. (September 1969). Standard X-ray Diffraction Powder Patterns: Section 7. Data for 81 Substances. Washington D.C: UNT Digital Library. p. 78. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc13215/m1/84/. Retrieved June 17, 2013. 
  39. ↑ Yankova, Rumyana; Genieva, Svetlana (June 2019). "Crystal structure and IR investigation of double salt Cs
    2    Ni    (SeO
    4    )2·4H
    2    O    ". Chemical Data Collections 21: 100234. doi:10.1016/j.cdc.2019.100234.     
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Pecora, W.T., Hobbs, S.W. and Murata, J.K. (1949) Variations in garnierite from the nickel deposit near Riddle, Oregon. Economic Geology, 44, 13-23.
  41. ↑ Roqué-Rosell, J., Villanova-de-Benavent, C., Proenza, J.A., Tauler, E. and Galí,S. (2011) Distribution and speciation of Ni in sepiolite-falcondoite-type “garnierite” by EXAFS. Macla, 15, 183-184.
  42. ↑ Faust, G.T. (1966) The hydrous nickel-magnesium silicates – The garnierite group. The American Mineralogist, 51, 279-298.
  43. ↑ Brindley, G.W. and Hang, P.T. (1973) The nature of garnierites – I Structures, chemical compositions and color characteristics. Clays and Clay Minerals, 21, 27-40.
  44. ↑ Springer, G. (1974) Compositional and structural variations in garnierites. Canadian Mineralogist, 12, 381-388.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 Takashi Watanabe (1962). "Magnetic Properties of NiSO
    4    ·7H
    2    O     and α-NiSO
    4    ·6H
    2    O     at Low Temperatures"    . Journal of the Physical Society of Japan 17 (12): 1856-1864. doi:10.1143/JPSJ.17.1856. https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jpsj1946/17/12/17_12_1856/_article/-char/ja/. Retrieved 8 November 2021.     
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 46.3 A. N. Rencz; W. W. Shilts (1980). JO Nriagu. ed. Nickel in Soils and Vegetation of Glaciated Terrains, In: Nickel in the Environment. pp. 151-88. ftp://ftp.nrcan.gc.ca/ess/geochem/files/publications/pub_02115/rencz_shilts_1980.pdf. Retrieved 2014-10-28. 
  47. ↑ Alain Plouffe (February 1998). "Detrital transport of metals by glaciers, an example from the Pinchi Mine, central British Columbia". Environmental Geology 33 (2-3): 183-96. doi:10.1007/s002540050237. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s002540050237. Retrieved 2014-10-02. 

External links[edit | edit source]

{{Geology resources}}

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