India's agricultural sector is vital for their economy and rural livelihoods but today it faces the challenge of meeting increasing food demands. Despite being one of the world's largest food producers, sustaining this growth is essential. With over 40% of the population employed in agriculture, the need for sustainable practices is critical. Initiatives by the government, including organic farming and integrated pest management, is facing a hard time addressing these challenges. However, the country's population of 1.447billion, projected to reach 1.7 billion by 2050, intensifies the demand for resources, requiring a 70% increase in food production, as per WHO estimates. Biotechnology holds promises in sustainable agriculture, but its adoption remains limited due to safety reasons. Despite Biotechnological alternatives in pest management and the vast success of tissue culture on the second green revolution highlighting the sector's potential its application remains limited. Concerns about sustainability, ethical considerations, and policy limitations have limited the employment of genetically Modified (GM) Crops, CRISPR/Cas9 Genome Editing in India, Bio-fortification and Nutraceuticals, Precision Agriculture and Big Data in Indian agricultural practices. The review provides a comprehensive understanding the role biotechnology could play in Indian agriculture, addressing challenges and potential solutions if adopted completely. The multifaceted landscape requires a concerted effort from researchers, policymakers, and farmers to harness the full potential of biotechnological interventions.

First Heading

1. Introduction

1.1 Understanding the Indian Agricultural landscape

India's agricultural sector is central to its economy and society, providing livelihoods for a substantial portion of the population. According to the World Bank, agriculture employs over 40% of the country's workforce directly and indirectly, highlighting its critical role in rural livelihoods [1], [2]. India is also one of the largest producers of food in the world, with an agricultural output of 292.3 million metric tons in 2020-2021 [3]. To meet this demand, India will need to increase its agricultural productivity and adopt sustainable agricultural practices. The government has launched several initiatives to promote sustainable agriculture, including organic farming, integrated pest management and conservation agriculture. Despite these efforts, the adoption of sustainable agriculture practices remains limited, with sustainable agriculture on the margins in the country. Simultaneously, the nation's population of 1.447billion is projected to reach 1.7 billion in less than 30 years, intensifying the demand for food, water and other resources [4]–[6]. According to a report by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), India’s food production will need to increase by 70% to feed its population by 2050. The report states that annual cereal production will need to rise to about 3 billion tonnes from 2.1 billion today and annual meat production will need to rise by over 200 million tonnes to reach 470 million tonnes [7].

Figure 1: Indian population growth from 2012 to 2024 (Statistia, 2024)

Figure 2: India's food output and required future food output (million metric tons).

Agriculture in India continues to be a significant contributor to the country's economy from manufacturing to food processing as it provides raw materials for factory use [8], [9]. The sector has seen impressive growth, particularly in productivity, due to the Green Revolution and the adoption of modern crop varieties and input intensification [10]. However, there are challenges such as the need for new technologies, sustainable practices and better exploitation of rainfed areas [10]. Despite these challenges, India remains a major player in the global agricultural market, exporting a significant number of agricultural products and yet failing to reach her full potential of food security like other food exporting countries like the USA or Netherlands [11].

Though India holds a complex role in global food security. the country has the potential to contribute significantly to global food security through increased trade and technology exchanges [12], [13]. India faces significant challenges in ensuring food security for its own population [14]. These challenges are exacerbated by the country's reliance on price-based input subsidies and a public distribution system, which are less efficient than the direct transfers used by China [15]. India's response to global food price volatility, including the enactment of the National Food Security Act, has also been a topic of debate [16, 17]. Apart from policies, Modi's government has continued to encourage agricultural technology is evident in various initiatives and policies [18,19]. S. Datta et al emphasizes the need for genetic modification technology, which can significantly contribute to food security [20]. While Singh and Meena underscores the responsibilities of aggrotech startups even in plant biotechnology and their roles in driving innovation and growth in the sector [21]. These studies collectively underscore the importance of technology in modernizing Indian agriculture, a goal that aligns with Modi's vision for the sector.

Figure 3: illustration group yield before and after genetic modification as reported by various researches (Lerner, no date; Khaipho-Burch et al., 2023).

1.2 Sustainable Agriculture Practices

Biotechnology plays a crucial role in promoting sustainable Agriculture practices, including organic farming, integrated pest management and conservation agriculture in North America and Europe. Traditional methods, such as double cropping and agroforestry, have been identified as effective in mitigating the adverse effects of climate change which could better be improved by biotechnology hydroponics systems [22]. However, the sustainability of scientific maize cultivation practices in Uttar Pradesh has been found to vary, with irrigation and the use of high-yielding varieties made possible by biotechnology, has been perceived as more sustainable [23]. The need for consistent growth in irrigation potential to support stable agricultural growth has also been emphasized [24,25].

The use of biotechnology in sustainable agriculture in India has been a topic of much discussion. [26, 27] both highlight the potential of biotechnological alternatives in pest management, with the former emphasizing the need for ethical and regulatory considerations. However, Egelyng and Alam caution that the sustainability of Indian agriculture might depend on more than just biotechnology and that current policies may discourage the adoption of sustainable technologies. These studies underscore the potential of biotechnology in sustainable agriculture in India, but also the need for careful management and consideration of broader environmental and economic factors [28, 29].

Yadav et al, discusses the impact of tissue culture, a key biotechnological technique, on the agricultural sector in India, emphasizing its role in the second green revolution [30]. While De underscores the potential of plant biotechnology in improving crop health and production to meet the increasing demand for food and nutrition in India [31]. The relevance of new technologies in India's agro-based economy is very crucial, when we consider India’s different genetic base, agroclimatic diversity and skilled workforce as key assets [32]. Plant biotechnology in India has the potential to significantly improve crop health and production, addressing the country's food and nutrition demands [31]. However, the Indian government remains worried that the commercialization of biotechnological innovations may lead to increased farmer dependence on external inputs, causing farmers to lose their ability to reuse viable seeds from previous harvests and hence hindering sustainable development and self-reliance [33–35].

Figure 4: Examples of some genetically modified crops in India.

Before now biotechnology application in agriculture have met both good and challenging results. The introduction of genetically modified crops, such as Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton, has disrupted traditional agricultural practices, potentially leading to deskilling [36]. On the other hand, the application of plant tissue culture has had a positive impact on agriculture, contributing to the second green revolution in India [30]. Biotechnology has significant potential in animal farming practices in India, particularly in the areas of animal reproduction, nutrition and health. [37, 38] highlights the opportunities for growth in the Animal agriculture sector, which could be harnessed through biotechnology. [39] further emphasizes the potential of genomic biotechnology in animal breeding, which could lead to improved livestock production. [40, 41] both discuss the potential applications of biotechnology in animal nutrition, physiology and health, including the production of disease-resistant transgenic animals and the use of advanced reproductive and genomic technologies. These studies collectively suggest that biotechnology could significantly enhance animal farming practices in India.

Biotechnological practices have also been instrumental in improving crop health and production, with a focus on specific grain and seed crops [31]. However, the industry has faced challenges in terms of ethics, business and politics, particularly in the case of Bt cotton in Gujarat [26, 42-43]. The seed and agricultural biotechnology industries in India have also been analyzed, with a call for more substantive policy reforms to encourage innovation and reduce regulatory uncertainty [44- 47] Gahukar discusses the complexities of patent laws and the need for more time to fully benefit from international agreements. Rangasamy emphasizes the need for effective dissemination of information about the risks and benefits of biotech crops, as well as the importance of a strong regulatory system [48]. While Sapkota and Joshi the potential biotechnology remains over clearer in agriculture, there is a need for infrastructure and funding [49, 50]. All these above-mentioned points underline some of the numerous successes of a sustainable biotechnology approach in the Indian plant biotechnology sector.

2. The stage of genetically modified (GM) crops around India

GM crops have been a focal point in plant biotechnology, offering traits such as pest resistance, herbicide tolerance and enhanced nutritional content [51]. Here, we examine the adoption, benefits and controversies surrounding GM crops in India, highlighting case studies and their impact on agricultural practices.

Despite the highly profitable Indian agricultural sector, foreign agricultural giants are sceptic investing in India due to the Indian court of justice position on bending policies hence the status of patent protection for genetically modified plants in India is uncertain, posing challenges for their introduction [52]. Despite this, there is a diverse range of genetically engineered crops in the product development pipeline [53, 54]. Chowdhury have shown that GM technology is still in the early stages of evaluation in India, genetically modified cotton has been successfully developed in India, increasing yields and profits [51, 55-56].

The success of genetically modified plants like cotton in India has been a topic of debate and exploration. Praveen discusses the potential of genetic modifications like transgenic approaches to combat plant viruses in India [57]. The success of genetically modified plants in Punjab, particularly in the case of wheat, has been a topic of debate [58]. The use of induced mutation breeding has shown promising results in the development of medicinal and aromatic crops in India [59]. The rapid progress in genetic engineering and gene transfer methods has made it possible to engineer a wide range of plant species, including those important in Punjab's agriculture [20, 60].

In Kerala, the success of genetically modified plants is evident in various studies. Lal and Luna both highlight the successful genetic improvement of Eucalyptus and medicinal and aromatic crops, respectively, in India [61, 59]. Kumer et al, Further underscores the success of scientifically based horticultural interventions in improving vegetable productivity in Karnataka, which could potentially be applied to Kerala as well [62]. These studies collectively suggest that genetically modified plants have the potential to thrive in Kerala, given the right interventions and support.

The regulatory system for GM crops in India faces significant challenges, including regulatory delays, political interferences and public misconceptions [63, 64]. The development of genetically modified (GM) plants faces several challenges. Halpin highlights the difficulty of expressing or manipulating multiple genes in plants, a key hurdle in plant genetic engineering [65]. Ahanger et al and Ahmed et al both emphasizes the need to address these challenges to increase the acceptance of GM crops, particularly in the context of food security [66, 67]. While Anjanappa et al discusses the bottleneck in plant transformation due to the recalcitrance of certain plant species and crop genotypes, despite the rapid advances in molecular breeding [68]. Tandon et al discusses the environmental concerns associated with Bt Cotton, the first genetically modified crop in the country [69]. Bawa and Day both points out the difficulty in controlling the integration of foreign DNA and the potential production of toxicants and allergens in GM plants [70, 71].

These challenges collectively underscore the need for continued research and innovation in the field of plant genetic engineering. However, In India the introduction of genetically modified (GM) plants in India is hindered by a range of challenges.

3. Roles of biotechnology in improving crops in India

3.1 CRISPR/Cas9 Genome Editing in India

The revolutionary CRISPR/Cas9 technology has indeed opened new avenues for precision genome editing. We discuss its potential applications in crop improvement, disease resistance and adaptation to climate variability, emphasizing recent developments in Indian agricultural research. CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing has revolutionized agriculture, offering a range of applications including improved yield, biofortification and stress tolerance in crops [72, 73]. This technology has been particularly effective in plant genomics research, enabling rapid and efficient editing of genomes [74, 75]. The CRISPR/Cas9 system has been compared favorably to other genome editing tools, such as TALEN and ZFN nucleases, due to its potential for developing resistant crops with enhanced quality and productivity [76, 77]. Furthermore, it has been used to develop novel plant varieties with improved traits, such as nutritional enhancement, disease resistance and drought tolerance [78-80].

In India, this technology has the potential to significantly impact cereal crops such as rice, wheat, maize and sorghum, which are crucial for food security [81]. The system has been successfully applied in plants to achieve improved yield performance, biofortification and stress tolerance, with rice being the most studied crop [72, 82]. Its development and application in rice have been reviewed, with a focus on its impact on functional genomic research and variety improvement [83]. The application of CRISPR systems in plant genome editing, particularly in achieving improved yield performance and stress tolerance, has been highlighted, with rice being a key crop of study [72]. The CRISPR/Cas9 system has also shown great potential for targeted genome editing in wheat, a complex and polyploid plant [84]. This system has been further optimized for wheat genome editing, with the development of an Agrobacterium-delivered CRISPR/Cas9 system that significantly increases the efficiency of mutations recovery [85]. The application of this system in wheat has been demonstrated through the successful targeting of specific genes, resulting in the desired mutations [86].

Though many successes but the application of CRISPR/Cas9 may be hindered by the need for a large T0 transgenic plant population [87-89]. The success of CRISPR-Cas in India relies on a large T0 transgenic plant population, as demonstrated by [90-92] in rice and maize, respectively. These studies found high mutagenesis rates and stable inheritance of mutations in later generations. The delivery of CRISPR/Cas components into plant cells, a crucial step in genome editing, has been explored by [90, 93], who discussed various methods including Agrobacterium tumefaciens, plant viruses and A. rhizogenes. The potential of CRISPR-Cas technology in modifying food crops, including its role in increasing yield and stress tolerance, has been highlighted by [94]. These findings underscore the importance of a large T0 transgenic plant population in India for the successful application of CRISPR-Cas in crop improvement. But despite these challenges, the CRISPR-Cas system remains a powerful tool for enhancing agricultural products [95].

3.2 Biofortification and Nutraceuticals

Biotechnological strategies for biofortification aim to enhance the nutritional content of crops. Here, we explore the development of nutrient-rich varieties and nutraceuticals, addressing malnutrition and promoting health in the Indian population. Biofortification, the process of enhancing the nutritional content of food crops, is a key strategy for addressing malnutrition in India [96, 97]. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research is actively involved in developing biofortified crop varieties to improve nutritional security [98]. Plant biotechnology, including genetic modification, is being explored as a means to increase food and nutrition production in India [31]. Studies have also highlighted the nutritional value of wild edible plants in India, such as Portulaca oleracea Linn and Asparagus officinalis DC, which are rich in proteins, fats and calories [99].

Figure 5: this illustrates various step in biofortification and improving nutrient use in genetically improve crops. Further elaborating on the repression of negative regulators and activation of positive regulation both for the aim of achieving the objective f or the biofortification using CRISPR/Cas9 recombinant DNA technology.

This approach has been particularly successful in the development and release of 71 nutrition-rich crop cultivars in the country [96]. Plant biotechnology, including genetic modification, has played a crucial role in this process, with a focus on specific grain and seed crops [31]. Wheat biofortification, in particular, has been identified as a promising avenue for ensuring nutritional security in India [100]. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research has played a key role in this, with a focus on cereal crops such as rice, wheat, maize and millets [101, 102]. These efforts have the potential to significantly improve nutritional security in India, particularly for vulnerable populations [103, 104].

The Indian government has made significant efforts in the field of biotechnology, particularly in the areas of agricultural production and health care [105]. This includes the development of a strong biotech base, the commercial introduction of GM-plants and the production of enzymes from GM organisms [106, 107]. The Department of Biotechnology has played a major role in building the necessary infrastructure and human resources for biotech applications [108-110]. In the agricultural sector, the government is focusing on the use of biofertilizers as a sustainable alternative to chemical fertilizers [111, 112]. These efforts demonstrate a commitment to leveraging biotechnology for the benefit of the Indian population.

Biofertilizers introduced thus far, includes nitrogen-fixing bacteria, algae and fungi, play a crucial role in Indian agriculture by enhancing nutrient availability and plant uptake [113, 114]. They are seen as a sustainable and cost-effective alternative to chemical fertilizers, with the potential for commercial success [115, 116]. Studies have shown that biofertilizers can significantly improve plant growth, fruit yield and rhizosphere enzyme activities, particularly in harsh environments like the Indian Thar Desert [117, 118]. The development and application of potassic biofertilizers, which can enhance the plant nutritional value, is an area of active research in India [119].

However, the development of plant-based medicines and nutraceuticals faces the need for commercial viability and national acceptance [120, 121]. Biofortification, a sustainable approach to addressing malnutrition, is being pursued in India, with ongoing programs by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research [98, 122]. India keeps making progress in developing biofortified crop varieties, which can contribute to both nutritional and food security [96].

3.3 Precision Agriculture and Big Data

The integration of biotechnology with precision agriculture and big data analytics offers opportunities for optimizing resource available, improving crop management and maximizing yields. [123-125] all highlighted the gap between theoretical research and the practical needs of Indian farmers to apply precision farming in their day-to-day practice.

Figure 6: illustration of certain benefits of precision agricultural practices in India.

The use of Big Data in precision agriculture in India has the potential to significantly improve the sector, as highlighted by [126]. This is further supported by [127], who emphasizes the role of data mining in crop recommendation systems, which can help farmers make informed decisions. However, the adoption of precision agriculture in India is not without its challenges, as noted by [128]. Despite these challenges, the potential benefits of precision agriculture in India are significant, as discussed by [129, 130]. The use of statistics in plant biotechnology in India is crucial for planning and analyzing experiments [131, 132]. With the country's large population and significant biodiversity, plant biotechnology has the potential to improve crop health and production[31]. The application of big data analysis and machine learning tools in genomics and proteomics can further enhance the field of plant biotechnology [133]. However, there is a need for new technologies to meet the increasing demand for food and nutrition in India [31, 134]. Devalkar et al highlights its role in providing timely price information [135], while Lobo et al emphasizes its importance in climate smart agriculture, particularly in developing predictive capabilities and delivering real-time farm knowledge [136]. Lavanya and Sekhar both underscore the value of big data in crop planning and increasing agricultural yield, with Sudha specifically focusing on the use of machine learning techniques [137, 138]. These studies collectively suggest that big data can indeed help India make better agricultural decisions.

The use of Big Data in Indian agriculture presents both opportunities and challenges. Sekhar and Shankarnarayan both highlight the potential for Big Data to improve productivity and provide market information to farmers [139, 140]. However, they also note challenges such as the need for real-time monitoring and communication with farmers and the potential power imbalances between farmers and corporations. Sagar and Cravero et al further emphasize the challenges of identifying the impact and effectiveness of Big Data analytics and the need to design appropriate data architectures as the volume of data increases. While the challenges of precision agriculture in India are multifaceted [141, 142]. Soma and Ketka both highlight the socio-economic and infrastructural barriers, such as declining agriculture labour, shrinking productive land and the need for improved information technology [143, 144]. Emphasis on the need for policy interventions to address these challenges and promote the adoption of precision farming thereby making it easier in coming future cannot be overstretched, this remains critical if the success of Biotechnology application will be a success in Agricultural platforms [145].

4. Future Perspectives

The paper projects an outlook on the future of biotechnology in Indian agriculture, considering ongoing research, policy implications and the potential for technology transfer to smallholder farmers. The future of biotechnology in Indian agriculture is promising, with potential for significant growth and contribution to the global economy [146, 147]. Plant biotechnology, in particular, holds great potential for improving crop health and production, addressing food security and meeting the increasing demand for food and nutrition in India [31].

To overcome current challenges and realize the full potential of biotechnology in Indian agriculture, the integration of novel genetic resources, genome modification and omics technologies, as well as the development of quantitative, objective and automated screening methods, are crucial [148]. Biotechnology has significantly impacted Indian agriculture, with the use of genetically modified crops and trait-genetic use restriction technologies [149, 150]. Tissue culture, a key biotechnological technique, has also played a crucial role in the industry's growth and market needs but can do more [151, 152].

Plant biotechnology has been instrumental in improving crop health and production, addressing the growing demand for food and nutrition especially due to population raise [153, 154]. The agribiotech industry, particularly in the area of genetically modified crops, has seen significant growth, but also faces challenges such as food safety and environmental concerns [155], hence resolving this challenges would be an expected in near future.

while Borah emphasizes the role of the Indian government in the sector's growth [156]. McKinney discusses the ethical, business and political dimensions of agricultural biotechnology, particularly in the case of Bt cotton in Gujarat [157]. Mishra underscores the importance of environmental governance and sustainable technologies in the context of Indian agriculture [158]. These studies collectively suggest that the government has a key role to play in the crucial reshaping of the future of biotechnology practices in Indian agriculture.

5. Discussion and conclusion

This review provides valuable insights into the multifaceted landscape of Indian agriculture, with a focus on the role and potential of biotechnological interventions. The critical interplay between the agricultural sector, the nation's economy and the livelihoods of its people is emphasized, setting the stage for a detailed exploration of key aspects. The agricultural sector in India, employing over 40% of the workforce, plays a critical role in the nation's economy and rural livelihoods. With a burgeoning population projected to reach 1.7 billion by 2050, the demand for food, water and resources is escalating, necessitating innovative approaches to address the challenges faced by the sector.

The review emphasizes the achievements and growth of Indian agriculture, attributed in part to the Green Revolution and the adoption of modern crop varieties. However, persistent challenges such as the need for sustainable practices, technological advancements and efficient resource utilization remain. The paper sheds light on India's complex role in global food security, noting the potential for increased trade and technology exchanges while acknowledging the hurdles in ensuring food security for its own population.

Biotechnology emerges as a key player in transforming Indian agriculture, with a focus on sustainable practices, genetically modified (GM) crops, CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing, biofortification and the integration of precision agriculture with big data analytics. The potential benefits of these technologies, including enhanced yield, pest resistance, improved nutritional content and resource optimization, are explored. However, the review underlines the ethical, business and political dimensions associated with the adoption of biotechnological innovations, especially in the case of GM crops.

The discussion on GM crops in India reflects a nuanced narrative, acknowledging success stories in cotton while highlighting challenges in regulatory systems, public perception and environmental concerns. The examination of CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing technology underscores its revolutionary impact on crop improvement, disease resistance and adaptation to climate variability. The potential applications of this technology in addressing India's food security challenges are evident, particularly in cereal crops crucial for sustenance. Biofortification and nutraceuticals are positioned as critical strategies to combat malnutrition in India, with biotechnological interventions leading to the development of nutrition-rich crop varieties. The paper highlights the success in releasing biofortified cultivars, emphasizing their role in improving nutritional security, particularly for vulnerable populations. Precision agriculture and big data analytics emerge as transformative tools with the potential to optimize resource use, enhance crop management and maximize yields. The adoption of these technologies in India faces challenges related to infrastructure, socio-economic factors and policy interventions. The review acknowledges the need for a concerted effort to overcome these challenges and promote the adoption of precision farming. The concluding section offers a forward-looking perspective on the future of biotechnology in Indian agriculture. The promising trajectory foresees significant growth and contributions to the global economy, particularly in the realm of plant biotechnology. However, the paper emphasizes the importance of addressing ethical, business and political dimensions to unlock the full potential of biotechnology in Indian agriculture. The role of the government is underscored, emphasizing its crucial influence in shaping the future of biotechnological practices in the sector.

In essence, the review paper provides a direct understanding of the multifaceted landscape of biotechnology in Indian agriculture, serving as a valuable resource for policymakers, researchers and stakeholders invested in the sustainable development of the nation's agricultural sector. The synthesis of diverse perspectives and the exploration of technological innovations underscore the complexity and potential of biotechnological interventions in addressing India's evolving agricultural needs.

Acknowledgements

Acknowledging the sponsor of this work, University of Petroleum and energy studies, Dehradun, India, contributions of researchers, policymakers and farmers in adopting advanced biotechnological applications for sustainable agriculture in India.

Competing interests

Authors have no competing interest on this article.

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[Okechukwu-1] University of Petroleum and energy studies

[a]