Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Intrinsic motivation and creativity

Intrinsic motivation and creativity:
What is the relationship between intrinsic motivation and creativity?

Overview

Scenario

Imagine being an artist trying to create a painting (see Figure 1). Long hours of slaving away, intent on capturing an image that your mind has seen[grammar?]. Paint stains your clothes, your fingers and the ground beneath your feet. Where does the motivation to keep going on this painting come from? How do you stay motivated to keep painting in a creative endeavour?

Alternatively, imagine you are a software developer tasked with coming up with a new aspect of an app you are working on. Long hours in front of a screen, trying to come up with a creative solution to an issue posed[grammar?]. How does motivation encourage creative solutions to problems?

One of the main problems with intrinsic motivation and creativity is understanding the process behind it. How does it work and what can you do to increase both motivation and creative outcomes?

Creativity is a key component in so many aspects of our modern lives. Many professions and sectors all use creativity and creative processes, from artists creating pieces to innovating new products and services. So, how does it work? And what are the mechanisms that can be used to model and understand this process?

The relationship between motivation and creativity is important to understand as it will influence so many aspects of an individual’s life. It will affect work outcomes, where creativity is such an important part of navigating the modern workforce. Finding creative solutions to problems, managing and promoting creativity and inspiring creativity from employees are all aspects of modern work. Additionally, creativity is an important part of leisure and rest. Creative projects, using creativity in social relationships and at home are all fulfilling experiences. How then can this be encouraged and understood?

The relationship between intrinsic motivation and creativity has been a focus of psychological study for many years, with the concept of creativity having changed over many years. Looking at the relationship between intrinsic motivation and creativity has led to an incredible amount of literature, branching out into many different areas of research. Understanding psychological literature can provide insight into processes that occur within oneself, such as how you can become motivated to create.

Additionally, how does intrinsic motivation compare to extrinsic motivation when it comes to creativity? How does each compare with regards to creative outcomes?

Finally, what are some of the factors affecting motivation and creativity? Looking at some of the other factors impacting the relationship between motivation and creativity will serve to enhance our understanding of the topic.

Focus questions:

What are some of the theories of intrinsic motivation?
What are some of the theories of creativity?
How do these two concepts affect each other?

What is Intrinsic Motivation?

Intrinsic motivation is a potent force for individuals with regards to both personal endeavours and professional pursuits. In addition, organisations and companies benefit from intrinsic motivation, given the power of intrinsic motivation to provide better performance (Cerasoli et al., 2014). But what is intrinsic motivation, and how does it work?

Intrinsic motivation can be defined “as the doing of an activity for its inherent satisfactions rather than for some separable consequence” (Ryan & Deci, 2000a, p. 56). Broadly speaking, intrinsic motivation is the reason that individuals are motivated to engage in fun, challenging pursuits without any external reward present. This can be seen all the way through development, with intrinsic motivation being present in children being inquisitive and creative, through to working professionals pursuing jobs they love, from athletes to scientists (Ryan & Deci, 2000b).

Intrinsic motivation is the reason that you do something simply for the love or interest of it. To overcome a challenge, to attain satisfaction for a goal achieved. This is present in every individual’s life, with hobbies that are not linked to extrinsic rewards, such as going for a walk outside simply because the weather is lovely, or to paint an image of something aesthetic for no-one other then yourself. It can also be tied into more extrinsic factors, such as a work project that might be tied to possible extrinsic rewards but is a subject you are passionate enough about to put extra effort into.

Theories of Intrinsic Motivation

What are some of the theories behind intrinsic motivation?

Self-Determination Theory - SDT Model

The Self-Determination Theory is a broad framework for understanding motivation and personality. SDT differentiates various motivational categories, with motivation varying along a continuum, from amotivation (the lack of intention to act) through to autonomous motivation (self-determined) (Ryan & Deci, 2000b). SDT also posits that there are basic psychological needs that will serve to enhance intrinsic motivation and self-regulation, being autonomy, competence and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2000b). In addition to this, the social environment can serve to enhance or diminish these basic psychological needs, and can affect one’s performance dramatically (Manganelli et al., 2018).

Autonomy: The ability to make your own choices

Competence: How good you are at a given activity

Relatedness: The need to feel connected to those around you

Whilst the SDT model is a broad framework, there is a specific sub-theory within the broader SDT model that relates to intrinsic motivation, that of Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET). CET is concerned with the factors in a social environment that can affect and vary an individual’s intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). These factors, such as rewards, communication and feedback, that add to an individual’s feelings of competence during creative action can enhance intrinsic motivation due to satisfying the psychological necessity for competence.

However, these feelings of competence will not enhance intrinsic motivation alone unless accompanied by a sense of autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). Therefore, according to CET individuals must experience a sense of autonomy in combination with feelings of competence in order for intrinsic motivation to be high. This is in combination with the social environment either aiding or hindering these psychological needs. There is some evidence for the CET model, with a meta-analysis lending literature support for the theory (Rummel & Feinberg, 1988). However, it is worth noting a lack of contemporary research into the model.

It should additionally be noted that the tenants and theory of CET only apply to activities that are of intrinsic motivation to individuals. For other activities or tasks, CET does not apply and other models related to extrinsic motivation will be more relevant, and there are other models within the larger SDT framework that will apply, namely that or Organismic Integration Theory (OIT), however that will not be discussed within this article.

Herzberg's Two Factor Model/Motivation-Hygiene Theory

The two-factor model of work motivation, also known as the Motivation-Hygiene Theory was developed by Herzberg in 1959, and is still an incredibly influential theory particularly as it relates to intrinsic motivation in workplaces and organisational psychology . There are two factors that can add or detract from a particular job’s satisfaction: motivation and hygiene (intrinsic and extrinsic) factors.

The ‘motivation’ factors are concerned with intrinsic motivation within the job, such as achievement, responsibility, recognition and the work itself (Lundberg et al., 2009). These factors are known as the motivating factors, and will lead to higher motivation for superior performance owing to the positive attitude and satisfaction that these factors can cultivate in an individual (Ihensekien & Joel, 2023). It is worth noting that a lack of intrinsic factors won’t lead to dissatisfaction, only an absence of satisfaction. The ‘hygiene factors’ are extrinsic factors, those related to not the job itself but rather the conditions that surround the performance the job (Lundberg et al., 2009). These factors can include elements such as company policies, quality of supervision, pay rates, job security, working conditions etc.

There have been current disagreements within the literature about Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory. It has been found that Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory still has validity, and that work motivation is grounded much higher in the ‘motivation’ factors, such as job satisfaction over current pay levels (Lundberg et al., 2009). Additionally, it was found that intrinsic factors and intrinsic motivation were more significant to employees then extrinsic factors were (Bassett-Jones & Lloyd, 2005). Alternatively, the Two-Factor model has also been shown to be insufficient to explain job satisfaction and workplace motivation, with ‘motivators’ and ‘hygiene’ factors being highly context dependent (Vijayakumar & Saxena, 2015). However, Herzberg’s model has still formed a highly used model to explain workplace intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is one of the most well-known theories of motivation in psychology. He proposed a pyramid of 5 basic needs, with the bottom 4 rungs being what are known as ‘deficiency needs’, which are needs developed due to deprivation. The final rung of the pyramid represents the final motivation, that of self-actualisation. The rungs are listed below in order with an explanation, and shown as the famous pyramid in Figure 2.

Physiological needs such as hunger, thirst, shelter and sex. Physiological needs are those required for human survival, and if not met, the body cannot function correctly. These needs should be met first, and then subsequent needs can be attained (Maslow, 1943).
Safety needs are concerned with security and protection from physical and emotional harm. Once the physiological needs are met, these needs become incredibly important, from developing as a child right through to old age. Broadly, in a ‘good’ society, members feel safe from violence, wild animals, environmental hazards, etc. Otherwise, in the case of emergencies this need will dominate, for example in cases of war, disease, bad health, natural catastrophes, etc (Maslow, 1943).
Love needs are concerned with social belonging, affection, acceptance and friendship. This rung of the pyramid is concerned with interpersonal needs. A deficiency within this level can lead to a severe damaging of ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships, such as friends, partners and family (Maslow, 1943).
Esteem needs are concerned with self-esteem, self-respect and other internal needs such as respect, achievement, autonomy as well as external needs such as reputation, recognition and attention. Satisfying this need leads to feelings of self-confidence, worth, capability and feelings of usefulness in the world. Conversely, by not meeting these needs, feelings of inferiority, weakness and helplessness can arise instead (Maslow, 1943).
Self-actualisation needs are the desire for self-fulfilment, the need for value, meaning and purpose and can also be described as intrinsic motivation. As Maslow (1943) states, ‘A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if he is to be ultimately happy. What a man can be, he must be’ (p. 383).

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs represents the intrinsic need for individuals to better themselves, and at the highest level pursue self-fulfilment, and is one of the primary theories of motivation in psychology. In testing 386 adults, it was found that significant correlations were found for his model, including the hierarchical nature of it (Taormina & Gao, 2013). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has also been used to predict quality of life in countries over time, however his mechanism of growth was not accurate (Hagerty, 1999). Maslow’s contribution is undeniable, with his model still demonstrating some validity, however more modern models are currently favoured to explain intrinsic motivation.

Quiz - Intrinsic motivation

Differences between intrinsic and extrinsic creativity

Individuals may have certain traits that can be favourable for creativity, but the results depend on the individual’s intrinsic or extrinsic motivation. Through their study, Prahbu and colleagues (2008) tested the mediating effects that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation had on creativity and different personality traits (openness to experience, self-efficacy and perseverance).

Notably, intrinsic motivation was beneficial for creativity and extrinsic motivation undermined creativity. High levels of extrinsic motivation and perseverance can be detrimental to creative efforts (Prabhu et al., 2008).[Provide more detail]

Other research has found that intrinsic motivation facilitates creativity, whilst extrinsic motivation has not been found to have a clear link to creativity. Peng et al (2013) found that if extrinsic motivation is paired with high levels of self-determination, it can have positive effects on creativity. However, without these levels of self-determination present, extrinsic motivation had no effect on creativity (Peng et al., 2013).

Whilst extrinsic motivation may not have a direct effect on creativity, perhaps it’s[grammar?] purpose is to enhance the relationship between intrinsic motivation and creative performance. If perceived external rewards and intrinsic motivation are both high, then creative performance and outcomes are positively affected (Fischer et al., 2019).

Going back to the scenario of a painter (see Figure 2), how does his motivation change if what he is trying to create is for himself vs for others? Does painting this picture for himself mean he is more motivated to do it, versus painting it for others?

How does motivation change if you are promised extrinsic rewards, such as money for your work? Will that motivate you more or make the creative process more difficult?

What is Creativity?

Creativity is a broad topic, and one that is also difficult to accurately define. Given that creativity could mean the creative potential of an individual, the creative output or performance of an individual, or even the inherent cognitive and physiological mechanisms of creativity. In this case, we will define creativity as creative performance, or the production of ideas or outcomes that are new and unique, and useful to a particular domain (Amabile, 1996).

This domain could be a more traditional creative medium such as watercolour painting or novel writing, or a more modern interpretation such as creative marketing campaigns or innovating new medical breakthroughs. In our current lives, creativity is an incredibly important aspect for both personal and professional endeavours. However, being able to foster creativity in ourselves or even in others is a difficult endeavour to undertake without first understanding some of the theories behind creativity.

Whilst there are broader areas within psychology on creativity, such as cognitive and developmental theories of psychology, instead the focus will be on creative theories that have an inherent connection to intrinsic motivation, given that the topic of creativity in broader psychological literature is a vast topic, capable of being it’s own book chapter.

Theories of Creativity

[Provide more detail]

Componential Theory of Creativity

The Componential Theory of Creativity is a model of the components needed for an individual to produce creative ideas and work, both psychological and social in nature (Amabile, 2011). There are several components, 3 psychological factors and 1 social factor.

The psychological and social factors for creative output are[factual?]:

Domain skills - Skills specific to the creative task such as knowledge, expertise and technical skill. These domain skills are the bedrock of the creative process, as they will not only allow the individual to create, but also enable them to effectively judge their efforts based on these domain skills.
Creative thinking skills - Creative processes and general creative abilities include a combination of cognitive and personality characteristics that aid in creative endeavours. The ability to innovate and not simply re-iterate previous ideas or processes within the space is a critical part of this skillset, and is one of the more difficult aspects of the creative process. Individuals high in creative thinking skills will be able to come up with new ideas, products, processes or expressions that are novel and of relevance to the space.
Task ,otivation - Motivation to complete specific tasks, especially that of intrinsic motivation which is vital to any creative endeavour. Having the motivation to complete a task or problem due to the interest, challenge and satisfaction is essential in the creative process. This intrinsic motivation is an essential part of the creative process, and of this theory as well. The majority of people will be at their most creative when motivated by an intrinsic interest in the task at hand, rather then extrinsic motivations. In addition to this, extrinsic motivation may undermine the intrinsic value people have, and may negatively impact their creativity (Amabile, 2011).
Social factor – The other component of this theory is the social/work factor. This can serve to either increase or diminish the creative output of the individual (Shalley et al., 2004). Environments that are conducive to creativity include elements such as positive challenge, mechanisms for developing and sharing new ideas, a sense of autonomy and supportive managerial styles (Amabile, 2011). Alternatively, there has been research that has demonstrated that poor work environments such as norms of criticizing new ideas, conservative and low-risk attitude amongst managerial staff and emphasis on maintaining the status quo will effectively block creative efforts (Amabile, 2011).

The combination of these factors will allow individuals to creatively perform at their peak when all factors are met or serve to interrupt and undermine that effort instead when obstacles are presented.

Interactionist Perspective of Organizational Creativity

The Interactionist Perspective of Organizational Creativity is concerned with the ‘creation of a valuable, useful new product, service, idea, procedure, or process by individuals working together in a complex social system’ (Woodman et al., 1993, p. 293). There is a core of individual factors that influence creativity at the individual level. Personality factors, such as high regard of aesthetic experiences, autonomy, self-confidence, sense of self as a creative, persistence and curiosity have all been identified as personality traits that correlate with creative expression (Woodman et al., 1993). Additionally, intrinsic motivation has been noted as being of essential part of this theory, that pursuing new ideas and processes for the sake of them is an essential component of creativity[improve clarity]. A key organizational factor is to identify what motivates individuals intrinsically and to ensure that creative activities take place around these motivators to increase creative performance (De Jesus et al., 2013).

Additionally, individual creative behaviour and factors will interact with organizational factors such as the interaction between group members, group norms, organizational culture and size, with organizational characteristics creating the additional characteristics that influence both individuals and groups to influence creativity (Woodman et al., 1993). For example, amongst employees, support from co-workers is incredibly important for improving creativity, whereas support from supervision and from family is less of a factor (Paramitha & Indarti, 2014). Additionally, factors that can improve creativity through intrinsic motivation include workplace climate and empowering leadership. It is also worth noting that task and personal conflict, along with controlling managerial styles are negatively related to creativity (Hon, 2011).

This theory of creativity has been found to have provide excellent frameworks in establishing the links between organizational and individual creativity, and the interactive effects they have on each other (Anderson et al., 2014). Indeed, due to the combination of creativity aspects from both organization and from the various psychological subfields, this theory of model of organizational creativity is one of the most extensive in the organizational psychology space (Klijn & Tomic, 2010).

Quiz

What is the link between Intrinsic Motivation and Creativity?

Current research indicates that there is a positive relationship between creativity and intrinsic motivation – as one increases, so does the other (Fischer et al.,2019). Through a meta-analysis of the relationship between intrinsic motivation and creativity related to product, 15 papers were used to reveal a significant positive relationship between intrinsic motivation and creativity (de Jesus et al., 2013). Additionally, a 40-year review and meta-analysis found that intrinsic motivation is a medium to strong predictor of performance (Cerasoli et al,. 2014).

However, it is worth noting there have been some mixed results in this field, with the constructs of motivation and creativity. In another meta-analysis of existing creativity literature, it was found that from a sample of 191 independent samples intrinsic motivation did have a relationship with creativity but was also contingent on aspects such as cultural values, sample characteristics and methodological factors such as self-report measures being higher (Liu et al., 2016). There has been a consistent research body devoted to organisational psychology and the relationship between intrinsic motivation and creativity, but it is often laboratory based experiments, with no consistent methodology to test creative performance (Klijn & Tomic, 2008).

Other research has demonstrated that there have been mixed finding in current studies, and as such will need further investigation into the precise mechanisms of intrinsic motivation and creativity (Anderson et al., 2014). Finally, through a series of studies testing the relationship between intrinsic motivation and creativity with other mediating psychological factors, it was found that the positive relationship between intrinsic motivation and creativity was stronger when pro-social motivation (the desire to benefit others) was also higher (Grant & Berry, 2011).

The link between intrinsic motivation and creativity is not only a direct link but also one that plays a key role in the broader theories in this space. Intrinsic motivation plays a key role in both the Componential Theory of Creativity and the Interactionist Perspective of Organizational Creativity. Within the Componential Theory of Creativity, intrinsic motivation is one of the central tenants of the model, with task motivation being a highly necessary psychological factor for creative expression. Likewise in the Interactionist Perspective of Organizational Creativity, intrinsic motivation is similarly an essential psychological factor that promotes creativity.

How can I become more intrinsically motivated and creative?

The simple answer is to follow things that are of high interest to you! The more passionate you are about a particular pursuit, in combination with skills that are relevant to that domain, alongside a degree of independence and a supportive social environment, the more you will be both intrinsically motivated and creative.

One of the keys is to ensure that if you want to be intrinsically motivated and creative, the social environment is of particular importance. Making sure that you are well-supported and that those around you encourage creative and new ideas is essential to your own creativity.

Conclusion

The link between intrinsic motivation and creativity is a strong one, and has been found be positive. As one becomes more intrinsically motivated, they will become more creative.

A number of theories underpin this, for both intrinsic motivation and for creativity.

Intrinsic motivation has theories such as Self-Determination Theory and Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs that can aid in explaining the concept of intrinsic motivation. The concept of creativity has theories such as the Componential Theory of Creativity and The Interactionist Perspective of Organizational Creativity underpin this construct.

To encourage your own intrinsic motivation and creativity, it is important to factor in concepts such as autonomy, competence and social environments.

References

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Liu, D., Jiang, K., Shalley, C. E., Keem, S., & Zhou, J. (2016). Motivational mechanisms of employee creativity: A meta-analytic examination and theoretical extension of the creativity literature. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 137, 236–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2016.08.001

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