Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Spirituality and mental health

Spirituality and mental health:
How does spirituality contribute to mental health and emotional well-being?

Overview

Figure 1. A doctor consulting a patient. Scenario Brenda has advanced bone cancer. Her doctors told her the disease had grown too aggressive for her body to fight alone (see Figure 1). Facing endless chemotherapy, she felt anxious and uncertain about the future. Hopelessness weighed heavily on her. To cope, Brenda turned inward to her spirituality. She practised daily meditation, using body scans to release tension and reconnect with her body. Prayer and gratitude became daily rituals, helping her notice small moments of meaning even amid suffering. These practices brought calm and a sense of control, allowing her to approach each day with steadier emotions. She also found support in a local spiritual group. Sharing fears with others who understood her journey eased her sense of isolation and offered reassurance. Over time, spirituality reshaped Brenda’s outlook. She shifted focus from her illness to purpose, connection, and personal growth. Each meditation, prayer, and shared story helped her find peace and maintain hope. In a life filled with uncertainty, these practices became tools to navigate fear, strengthen resilience, and preserve dignity. Spirituality gave Brenda a framework to face suffering without losing herself, and to discover meaning beyond the limits of her illness.

Spirituality provides people with a sense of meaning, purpose, and connection that goes beyond the material aspects of life. These shape how people see themselves and their role in the world. For some, spirituality supports mental health and emotional well-being by reducing stress and improving emotion control (Verghese, 2008). For others, it can cause distress, especially when they associate their beliefs with feelings of guilt, punishment, or conflict (Koenig, 2012).

Psychological theories help explain these mixed effects. Carl Rogers' humanistic approach shows that self-actualisation is crucial to personal growth and is often linked to spiritual experiences (Rogers, 1980). Maslow's hierarchy of needs reinforces this by placing transcendence and self-actualisation at the top of human motivation (Maslow, 1970). This illustrates how spirituality can either ease or hinder development. Together, these ideas demonstrate how spirituality can contribute to an individuals mental health and emotional well-being (Louca et al., 2022).

Focus questions What is spirituality? How does spirituality promote emotional well-being through mindfulness, compassion, and forgiveness? How do psychological theories explain the contribution of spirituality to mental health and well-being? How does current research support incorporating spirituality into the treatment of psychiatric disorders?

What is spirituality?

Spirituality includes a variety of personal held beliefs and experiences that involve a deep connection to a higher power or something larger than oneself. It includes a variety of beliefs and life experiences that relate to exploration, meaning, and purpose in the world (Verghese, 2008; Louca et al., 2022).

Figure 2. Female practising meditation

Important facets of spirituality consist of:

• Connection: Feeling a connection to the cosmos, nature, other people, a higher power, or even one's inner self is a common aspect of spirituality. This relationship can give rise to a feeling of understanding and community that goes beyond daily existence (Wong, 2016).
• Meaning and purpose: The search for life's meaning and purpose is frequently linked to spirituality. It can offer responses to existential questions like "What is my purpose?" and "Why am I here?" This quest for purpose may shape choices, deeds, and a person's life's path in general (Wong, 2016).
• Transcendence: Experiences that transcend the mundane or material world are often associated with spirituality. This might include sensations of amazement, or a profound sense of serenity that comes from marvelling at the immensity of the cosmos, meditating, or having meaningful interactions with other people (Wong, 2016).
• Morality and Values: A lot of individuals look to their spiritual beliefs for their moral guidance and values. People's perceptions of right and wrong, behaviour, and interactions with people and the outside environment can all be influenced by their spirituality (Vitell et al., 2015).
• Personal Development: Seeking self-improvement and personal growth is frequently associated with spirituality. This might entail pursuing knowledge, developing moral qualities like forgiveness and compassion, and making an effort to improve oneself (Wong, 2016).
• Practices: A variety of activities, including yoga (see Figure 2), meditation, prayer, rituals, and acts of service, can be used to express spirituality.

Through these activities, people can develop a sense of inner strength, balance, and serenity as well as a deeper connection to their spiritual beliefs. Spirituality may be found in many different forms and circumstances, both inside and outside of religion. It's about each person's path to self-awareness, meaning, and connection these journeys can frequently result in improved mental, emotional, and even physical health (Verghese, 2008).

Emotional regulation and spirituality: The role of mindfulness, compassion, and forgiveness

Spiritual activities or actions that involve mindfulness, compassion and forgiveness can also offer important psychological advantages. They help people reduce stress, manage negative emotions, and encourage good emotions. Psychology research is increasingly recognising the importance of these spiritual activities in fostering mental and emotional well-being (Hofmann et al., 2010).

Mindfulness meditation

• With its origins in spiritual traditions like Buddhism, mindfulness meditation has gained widespread recognition as a useful method in psychological therapy for regulating emotions. Being mindful entails focusing on the here and now while adopting an accepting, non-judgmental mindset. People can respond to stress in healthier and more adaptable ways by developing this awareness, which makes them more conscious of their thoughts and feelings (Farb et al., 2007).
• An increasing amount of studies demonstrates how much mindfulness practices help with emotional control. Hofmann et al. (2010, conducted a meta-analysis of 39 papers to look at the effects of mindfulness-based treatment on depression and anxiety. The findings showed that mindfulness plays a critical role in assisting people in controlling their negative emotions by dramatically reducing symptoms of both anxiety and sadness.
• Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was employed in a study by Farb et al. (2007) to investigate the brain processes underlying mindfulness. The study discovered that self-referential processing and emotional regulation-related alterations in brain activity were linked to mindfulness training. Individuals who engaged in mindfulness practices demonstrated improved emotional regulation, especially under pressure, and a higher level of awareness of their emotional states.

Compassion

• Another essential component of many spiritual traditions is compassion, which is acknowledging one's own and other people's pain and acting with kindness and a wish to lessen that suffering. Neff and Germer's (2013) study investigated how a self-compassion training programme affected participants' emotional health. According to the study, those who practiced self-compassion showed large improvements in life satisfaction along with significant decreases in stress, anxiety, and despair. By treating oneself with the same consideration and understanding that they would provide to a friend, people who practice self-compassion are able to protect themselves from the damaging effects of stress and foster emotional resilience.

Forgiveness

• Forgiveness, a practice emphasised in many spiritual traditions, involves letting go of anger, resentment, and the desire for revenge toward someone who has caused harm. Forgiveness is a powerful tool for emotional regulation, as it allows individuals to release negative emotions and move toward emotional healing and peace. A study by Worthington et al. (2007) reviewed the psychological and physiological effects of forgiveness and found that individuals who practised forgiveness experienced lower levels of stress and improved emotional regulation. The act of forgiveness helps to diminish the emotional burden of holding onto negative emotions, thereby promoting a more balanced and positive emotional state.

Quiz 1 Research shows that mindfulness practices can strengthen emotional regulation and reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety: True False 2 Practising compassion has been shown to increase stress and decrease life satisfaction: True False

Theoretical underpinnings

Figure 3. Carl Rogers

Psychology's theoretical foundations provide insights into the relationship between spirituality and mental health. They show how spiritual practices and beliefs can contribute to psychological and emotional well-being. One of the most influential perspectives is Carl Rogers' humanistic approach, which places a strong emphasis on the idea of self-actualisation (Rusu, 2019) . The process of reaching one's full potential and becoming the most authentic version of oneself. According to Rogers (see Figure 3), the pursuit of self-actualisation is an intensely personal and unique path on which the person aspires to become their most genuine self (Rusu, 2019). Similarly, Maslow's hierarchy of needs (1970) offers a motivational framework through which spirituality can support multiple levels of human development, from belongingness and esteem to self-actualisation and self-transcendence (see Figure 4).

Carl Rogers' humanistic approach and spirituality

Rogers (1961, 1980) argued that psychological well-being stems from self-awareness, autonomy, and personal growth, with self-actualisation as the pinnacle of development. Spiritual experiences, such as moments of profound insight or connection, may foster this process by encouraging individuals to explore values, beliefs and purpose (Guynn, 2021). Practices that nurture compassion, forgiveness, and self-acceptance reflect Rogers' concept of unconditional positive regard, supporting emotional resilience and alignment with authentic ideals.

Several studies provide evidence that spirituality can support mental health and emotional well-being, though the benefits may be limited and dependent on the context. Baetz and Toews (2009) found that spirituality often promotes emotional coping, emotional regulation and social connectedness, yet it can also heighten distress when beliefs are experienced as punishing or conflictual. Similarly, Coelho-Júnior et al. (2022) systematically reviewed 102 observational studies involving nearly 80,000 older adults. It was found that higher religiosity and spirituality were associated with lower depression and anxiety, greater life satisfaction, enhanced meaning in life and stronger social relationships. These findings are consistent with Roger's humanistic perspective, suggesting that engaging in spiritual practices can foster self-awareness, personal growth, and the pursuit of meaningful goals, thereby supporting both mental and emotional well-being.

Critically, it is important to recognise that most of the evidence was obtained from observational studies, so causality cannot be assumed. How spirituality is defined also differs across the studies, and outcomes are shaped by cultural and age-related factors. Overall, Rogers' humanistic framework helps to understand how spirituality can support personal growth and emotional resilience, but these benefits are highly individual and conditional.

Quiz 1 Baetz and Toews (2009) suggest that spirituality can sometimes increase distress if beliefs are experienced as punishing or conflictual: True False 2 Rogers’ framework implies that all individuals will benefit equally from spiritual engagement regardless of their cultural or personal context: True False

Maslow's hierarchy of needs and spirituality

Figure 4. Diagram of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Roger's emphasis on personal growth and the experiential nature of self-actualisation closely connect with Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Rogers, 1980). This model (see Figure 4) begins with physiological and safety needs, followed by belonging, esteem, and self-actualisation, with later models also recognising self-transcendence (Maslow, 1970). Spiritual practices, such as participating in communal activities and engaging in personal growth, can support a sense of belonging and enhance self-esteem (Barton & Miller, 2015). Reflecting on meaning and purpose can support self-actualisation and transcendence (Louca et al., 2022).

A meta-analysis by Yonker et al. (2011) reported small to moderate positive effects of spirituality on well-being (r = 0.16) and self-esteem (r = 0.11). Also noted were reductions in behavioural and depressive symptoms among over 66,000 adolescents and emerging adults. Although effect sizes are relatively small, these results suggest that spiritual engagement contributes positively to psychological development. This study highlighted practices such as attending religious services, engaging in prayer or meditation, and participating in volunteering. By engaging in these practices, individuals can improve their mental health and emotional well-being, moving toward self-actualisation.

Similarly, not all forms of spirituality have positive effects on well-being. Koenig (2012) warned that negative religious coping, such as viewing illness as a divine punishment or feeling abandoned by a faith community, can increase anxiety and depression. In some vulnerable individuals, it may also lead to hallucinations. Struggles with guilt, or conflict with religious institutions, including experiences of church-related harm or difficulty with forgiveness, are linked to greater psychological distress and suicidal thoughts. Spirituality can sometimes foster a sense of belonging, esteem, and meaning (Koenig, 2012). However, it is not always beneficial, and negative coping or conflicts can worsen mental health and increase psychological distress (Koenig, 2012).

These findings align with Maslow's framework, indicating that spiritual engagement can be utilised as a practical tool to meet higher-level psychological needs. However, Koenig (2012) highlights that spirituality is not universally beneficial and can have negative contributions to mental health. It's also important to consider that most studies were correlational, and one was observational, which limits causal claims. Effects varied by age, ethnicity, and measurement method (specifically, the definition of spirituality), and most participants were predominantly from Western/Christian geographical locations. This highlights the need to consider sociocultural and individual factors when applying Maslow's model to spirituality's role in mental health and emotional well-being.

Mechanisms linking spirituality and mental health

Figure 5. A depiction of imagery associated with visual hallucinations, illustrating how perceptual experiences in psychosis may be vivid, distorted, and subjectively interpreted in the context of spiritual or religious beliefs).

For people with psychiatric disorders, spirituality can provide meaning, hope, and resilience (Shahina & Parven, 2020). At the same time, spiritual experiences can overlap with symptoms of schizophrenia, such as hallucinations (see Figure 5; Westhead & Georgiades, 2025). Research highlights both the potential benefits and risks of incorporating spirituality as a treatment tool for psychiatric disorders.

Starnino’s (2016) qualitative case study used a hermeneutic phenomenological approach to gain an in-depth understanding of the relationship between spirituality and mental health. The study carefully examined the experiences of two individuals (James and Helen) with severe traumatic experiences and psychiatric conditions like schizophrenia. To help manage his symptoms, James practices spiritual activities such as meditation, prayer, and creating artwork. However, he noted that his spiritual beliefs were also closely linked to his psychotic symptoms. Specifically, the voices he kept hearing were interpreted as “demons”, telling him he “is in a battle of good vs evil” (Starnino, 2016). The case illustrates how spirituality can act as a coping mechanism while also potentially reinforcing psychotic experiences. It highlights the importance of clinical consideration when spirituality and mental health intersect.

Similarly, a study by Weisman de Mamani et al. (2010) investigated the spirituality in psychotherapy for patients with schizophrenia from minority populations in the United States. Positive effects were observed with religious coping strategies, including practices such as prayer, meditation, and listening to spiritual music. These practices led to a reduction in patient symptoms, improved stress management, increased hope, and a greater sense of meaning in life. Negative outcomes occurred when spiritual beliefs intensified psychotic symptoms. Examples include interpreting hallucinations as direct messages from God or viewing mental illness as punishment.

Together, these studies demonstrate that spirituality contributes to mental health outcomes in complex ways. Critically, these findings reinforce the importance of understanding individual experiences. Clinicians also need to consider the nature of the psychiatric symptoms before integrating spiritual practices into treatment. Without careful assessment, spiritual practices can contribute to negative mental health outcomes such as hallucinations.

Case study Figure 6. Two women are helping a homeless man by donating items to him. Helen is a 42-year-old Christian female with a history of severe trauma and schizoaffective disorder. She was raised with a strict view of God. As a result, she viewed her life through a religious lens. In her teenage years, she was sexually abused by a family member. She believed this was punishment from God because she “had sinned in some way" (Starnino, 2016, p. 376). In her early 20s, Helen began to experience hallucinations and voices paired with flashbacks of the abuse. She said, “I heard voices saying that I was selected ... I believed I deserved what was happening to me" (Starnino, 2016, p. 376). During this period, she attempted suicide and was hospitalised numerous times. Ten years ago, after psychiatric hospitalisation, Helen began exploring spiritual practices with the guidance of a therapist. This helped her let go of early ideas of religion that reinforced self-blame. She reflected, “[In the past] I would think ‘Well, I am separate and I am different because I have these challenges and the mental illness,’ and then I realized that everybody has something that they’re struggling with" (Starnino, 2016, p. 380). She now views herself as “part of the universe, as part of humanity,” (Starnino, 2016, p. 380) which has supported her in meaning-making and positive adaptation. Her new meaning in life derives from connection and growth. She said, “Before I would think, ‘God doesn’t like me.’ Now I see myself as being part of a greater, higher power that sort of makes me part of humanity" (Starnino, 2016, p. 380). She also expressed belief in reincarnation, saying, “I do believe that when you die your spirit goes on to another adventure and you continue to work on what you’re supposed to learn" (Starnino, 2016, p. 380). Currently, Helen employs spiritual coping mechanisms, including meditation, gratitude journaling, and time spent in nature, to support her well-being (Starnino, 2016, p. 381). She now finds purpose in advocacy and peer support, stating, “I found out that there is a purpose in my life and I can do things that I thought I couldn’t do before, and I can help other people"(see Figure 6; Starnino, 2016, p. 381). Helen’s story shows how spirituality can complicate recovery when linked to trauma and psychosis, yet also play a vital role in reframing suffering, fostering resilience, and building a meaningful life (Starnino, 2016).

Conclusion

Spirituality has a significant role in supporting mental health and emotional wellbeing. It provides a sense of meaning, purpose, and connection. Engaging in spiritual practices helps individuals manage emotions, reduce stress, and build resilience. Mindfulness and meditation, enhance awareness of thoughts and feelings, improve emotional regulation, and can reduce anxiety and depression (Farb et al., 2007; Hofmann et al., 2010). Compassion and self-compassion strengthen resilience and life satisfaction (Neff & Germer, 2013), while forgiveness reduces anger and stress, supporting emotional well-being (Worthington, 2007).

Humanistic theories, including Rogers’ (1980) focus on self-actualisation and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, highlight how spirituality encourages personal growth and the pursuit of higher-level psychological needs (Louca et al., 2022). Case studies show spirituality can serve as a coping tool, offering comfort and resilience. However, it can also pose risks, particularly when linked to trauma or psychotic symptoms (Starnino, 2016; Weisman de Mamani et al., 2010).

Critiques emphasise that spirituality is not universally beneficial. Its effects vary depending on individual context, personal history, and cultural background. Evidence is mostly drawn from Westernised populations, which may not generalise to Eastern or alternative spiritual practices. Defining and measuring spirituality remains challenging, limiting research consistency. Engagement should be tailored to the individual, and avoid obsession to the beliefs.

The key message is that spirituality can support mental health when approached carefully. It offers tools for emotional regulation, meaning-making, and personal growth. Awareness of potential risks and cultural differences is essential. For personal development, selective and balanced engagement with spiritual practices can enhance resilience, wellbeing and mental health.

See also

• Growth mindset and mental health (Book chapter, 2023)
• Self determination theory (Wikipedia)
• Spiritual and religious motivation (Book Chapter, 2011)

References

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Barton, Y. A., & Miller, L. (2015). Spirituality and positive psychology go hand in hand: An investigation of multiple empirically derived profiles and related protective benefits. Journal of Religion and Health, 54, 829–843. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-015-0045-2

Coelho-Júnior, H. J., Calvani, R., Panza, F., Allegri, R. F., Picca, A., Marzetti, E., & Alves, V. P. (2022). Religiosity/spirituality and mental Health in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Frontiers in Medicine, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2022.877213

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Shahina, G., & Parveen, A. (2020). Role of spirituality in building up resilience and mental health among adolescents. Indian Journal of Positive Psychology, 11(4).

Starnino, V. R. (2016). When trauma, spirituality, and mental illness intersect: A qualitative case study. Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy, 8(3), 375–383 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/tra0000105

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Vitell, S. J., King, R. A., Howie, K., Toti, J., Albert, L., Hidalgo, E. R., & Yacout, O. (2015). Spirituality, moral identity, and consumer ethics: A multi-cultural study. Journal of Business Ethics, 139(1), 147–160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2626-0

Westhead, M., & Georgiades, A. (2025). The role of spirituality and religiosity in the maintenance and recovery of psychosis: A systematic review. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 19(7). https://doi.org/10.1111/eip.70061

Wong, P. T. P. (2016). Meaning-seeking, self-transcendence, and well-being. In A. Batthyány (Ed.), Logotherapy and existential analysis: Proceedings of the Viktor Frankl Institute Vienna (Vol. 1,pp. 311–321). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29424-7_27

Worthington, E. L., Van Oyen Witvliet, C., Pietrini, P., & Miller, A. J. (2007). Forgiveness, health, and well-being: A review of evidence for emotional versus decisional forgiveness, dispositional forgivingness, and reduced unforgiveness. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 30(4), 291–302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-007-9105-8

Yonker, J. E., Schnabelrauch, C. A., & DeHaan, L. G. (2011). The relationship between spirituality and religiosity on psychological outcomes in adolescents and emerging adults: A meta‐analytic review. Journal of Adolescence, 35(2), 299–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.08.010

External links

• ABC Radio National: A prayer or pill? Exploring mental health science and religion (abc.net.au)
• Spiritual health care (rcpsych.ac.uk)
• What is Spirituality? (YouTube)