Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Social dominance and power motivation

Social dominance and power motivation:
What are it's characteristics in today's society?

Overview

Social dominance and power motivation are 2 concepts in psychology that help explain human behaviour, in particularly the hierarchy of group dynamics and leadership. The social dominance theory is a theory in which individuals or groups such as ethnic, religious national and or racial attain power over other individuals or groups and indulging in special privileges creating a power disadvantage to the other individual or group that has little political power or ease in life( Pratto, F,. & Stewart, A. 2011). The social dominance theory was developed in the 1990’s by Jim Sidanius and Felicia Pratto, their focus was on the prediction of societal oppression, discrimination and brutality and tyranny. Power motivation is the desire to impact, influence and hold power on other people and their behaviour and or emotions. (Roccato, M. 2014). While power motivations is a broad concept it contains overlapping concepts such as influence, inspiration, authority leadership, control and coercion. These concepts are often associated with maintaining and reinforcing social hierarchies (winter, D, G & Smith, C, P, 2009) . This chapter will discuss the correlation between social dominance and power motivations the the influence they have in today's society.

Introduction to social dominance and power domination

The Social Dominance Theory integrates social psychological insights into intergroup relations with a broader societal process of ideology and the legitimisation of social inequalities. The social dominance Theory acknowledges that most societies have a structure in which status hierarchies can results in certain groups having privilege over other groups. Additionally, The Social Dominance Theory provides a framework in which we have the ability to understand the persistent inequalities experienced by undervalued groups based on gender, race, and other social groups. This comprehensive approach highlights the intersectionality between individual attitudes and overarching social structures that contribute to inequality (Islam, 2014). Power Motivation is the desire in which an individual try’s to impact the behaviour and or emotions of those around them. Power motivation can be a broad term, it acknowledges over lapping concepts such as: influence, inspiration, nurturance, authority, leadership, control, dominance, coercion, and aggression. While these individual concepts hold different implications regarding legitimacy, morality and implied reaction of the other individual the “target” of power, the share a core meaning of an individuals capacity to affect the behaviour and or emotions of another person (Winter, 2009).
Understanding the importance of The social Dominance Theory and Power motivation can open our eyes to many perspectives. Some factors of importance include, The Social Dominance Theory providing a framework in where we can analyse the construct of social hierarchies and the legitimisation of it helping to explain persistent inequalities based on factors like race, gender and class. Awareness of the Social Dominance Theory, can lead to individuals and even organisations to strive for a more inclusive social construct, holding a commitment for inclusivity and fairness. The Social Dominance Theory can also be used as an educational tool for teaching individuals about power dynamics, and social justice, this can result in empowering individuals to comprehensively assess their own behaviours. It can also result in individuals in power can address systematic flaws in the construct of inequalities and designing interventions that promote equality. Addressing power motivation can help us understand why some individuals have the desire to reign influence over others, which can inform things like strategies, negotiation and conflict resolution. Understanding power dynamics can improve in the way interpersonal relationships, enhancing communication and reducing conflict in various social settings. Exploring the motives behind desire in correlation to power can lead deeper psychological insights, furthering personal development and holding empathy towards individuals’ motivation.
The social Dominance Theory is a social-psychological framework designed to explore social structures, their origins and their interrelations. Founded by psychologists Jim Sidanius and Felicia Pratto in 1992, it looks at the dynamics of these hierarchies. Key concepts for investigating group based social hierarchies include, age, gender and group identity. The theory suggests that human societies , particularly those that produce economic surpluses are characterised by distinct hierarchies which can be based on factors such as ethnicity, race, and religion (Michols, 2014). The concept of power motivation first came into existence in the early 1940’s through Abraham Maslow’s theory of needs. The theory of needs acknowledged the basic needs humans have, in order of their importance, psychological needs, safety needs and the need to feel a sense of belonging, self-esteem and self-actualisation. In 1961, David McClelland built on the concept in his book – The Achieving Society. In his book he writes about three motivators he believes we all have: 1 – a need for achievement, 2- a need for affiliation and 3 – and need for power, and that individuals will have different characteristics depending on their dominant motivator. McClelland writes, that regardless of our gender, culture or age, individuals have three key motivating drivers, with one typically being the most dominant. The main motivator is heavily influenced by our cultural background and personal life experiences.

Social domination

The Social Dominance Theory is a social psychological concept that examines the caste like features of social hierarchies in which group identities are rooted. It seeks to understand how these hierarchies are established and formed over time. According to the Social Dominance Theory group base can persist through three main mechanisms: institutional discrimination, aggregated individual discrimination and behavioural asymmetry. These mechanisms form a system in which certain groups maintain power over other groups. The theory suggests that widely accepted cultural ideologies know as legitimising myths, serve as a moral and intellectual justification for these inequalities which results in normalisation of privilege within societies. To test ands validate this hypothesis The Social Dominance Orientation was scale formed. The Social Dominance Orientation Theory measures individual’s acceptance of and desire for social hierarchies in correlation with different groups. It looks at two key factors: support for group based dominance and a general opposition to equality, regardless of the groups status within the hierarchy. By looking at these factors The Social Dominance Theory opens a perspective on the attitudes that uphold and legitimise group inequalities. This understanding allows a deeper exploration of intergroup relations and the social constructs that maintain inequality across various contexts. Furthermore, The Social Dominance Theory provides valuable perspectives into the complexities of power dynamics and the rough nature of social hierarchies.

Social hierarchies often display a trimorphic or three form structure, this simplified the four part biosocial structure initially proposed by Van Den Breghe in 1978. This construct can be divided into three categories: age, gender and arbitrary set. Age hierarchies suggests that adults typically hold more power and status over children. Gender hierarchies suggest that that men generally enjoy greater power and higher statues compared to women. Arbitrary et hierarchies consists of culturally defined group structures that many not be able to be applied universally. These catergories can include ethnicity such as: The United States, Bosnia and Hercegovina, Asia and Rwanda, along with class caste, religion including: Sunni versus shiai slam, nationally or other socially constructed classifications. Despite variations in hierarchical structures across different cultures, empirical research has identified correlations, particularly through The Social Dominance Orientation scale. Studies conducted in various countries showed a strong correlation between the Social Dominance Orientation scale and multiple forms of group prejudice, including sexism, discrimination based on sexual orientation and racism. Furthermore, the Social Dominance orientation scale has been linked to support for policies that can reinforce hierarchies. These conclusions highlight the pervasive nature of social hierarchies and their profound influence on intergroup relations, resulting in the attitudes that sustain and perpetuate inequalities in diverse societies Understanding these dynamics is crucial for addressing and challenging the systematic inequalities that exist globally.

The view of The Social Dominance Theory is that there will always be a dominant gender in any given society, and at present the dominant gender is male. The Social Dominance Theory also presumes that since males are more dominant, they are more likely to discriminate and or enforce their position in order to keep their hierarchical dominance. Sidanus, Pratto, and Brief introduce the invariance hypothesis in their book : “Group Dominance and the Political Psychology of Gender: A Cross-Cultural Comparison”. They discuss how the invariance hypothesis from social dominance maintains that, everything else being equal, males will have a higher level of group dominance then women. They examined this hypothesis cross-nationally with over 1,200 young individuals from Australia, Sweden, The United States and Russia. There were two tests that took place, one with a weak invariance hypothesis and the other with a strong invariance hypothesis. The weak version showed that males across all four nationals examples exhibited significantly higher group dominance scores. Whereas the strong version was not upheld since gender interacted significantly with nationality. The gender differences were noticeably larger between males and females in Sweden and Russia compared to The United States and Australia. Additionally, while the variability of group dominance scores among males were consistent across all the nations, males showed significantly greater variability in their scores then the females within each country. Overall, social dominance remains a complex and evolving issue, influenced by ongoing discussions about equity, justice, and representation.

Power motivation

Power motivation is defined as the desire to influence, control and or impress others and to receive acclaim or at least recognition for these power motivated behaviours. As a motive it energises behaviour and pushes it towards objectives that fulfill basic needs (Schultheiss & Brunstien, 2010). Mclelland identifies power motive, also known as the need for power, as a primary factor of human motivation. Motive can reflect as a desire to exert influence over others, with a discomfort with being influenced by external factors. Those that are motivated by power are focused on their social status, reputation and prestige. They often desire for their significance to be highlighted in social situations by attracting attention to themselves and striving to impress others ( Wang, Qu, Li & Fu, 2022). Wang, Qu, Li & Fu discuss in their research paper that participants were given money in a game of ultimatum scenarios. Individuals who realised their actions were available to the public, their donations were lager then those who stayed anonymous. This experiment shows that social presence has a significant influence on prosocial behaviour. Reputation is widely seen as a crucial factor in promoting prosocial behaviour, especially in social contexts. Individuals often engage in prosocial actions with the expectation that it will enhance their reputation, which in turn benefits their social interactions ( Wang, Qu, Li & Fu, 2022). McClelland states in his book that regardless of our gender, culture or age we will have the motivating drivers, it is believed that one of these will be our dominating driver. The characteristics are: achievement, affiliation and power. When an individual’s dominant motive is power, they are driven to influence other’s and take charge. A go to example people usually got to is Hitler in Nazi Germany, whereas this isn’t the case as most forms of power motive manifest in a mild form, such as a coach or leader. These individuals don’t aspire to create an environment such as a dictatorship, but they aim to inspire other’s, delegate responsibilities and positively influence those around them. When an individual’s dominant motive is achievement, they are driven by the desire improve simply for the sake of improvement. These individuals will strive to exceed expectations and take satisfaction in outperforming other’s. These individuals enjoy challenges and prefer to take control of their own success. When and individuals dominant motive is affiliation, they are driven by desire for social connections. Their focus is on fitting in and pleasing those around them, placing high value on their relationship with other’s. Such individuals prefer familiar environments and are mostly reluctant to leave their workplace. They also dislike working. They also tend to dislike working alone and strive to avoid letting down their coworkers and managers. It is noted that individuals who have a strong power motive are often split into one of two groups: personal and institutional. Individuals with a personal power drive want to control others, whereas individuals with an institutional power drive like to organise the efforts of a teams to further the company’s goals. Although McClelland’s theory is mostly focused on and applied to work performance, he also conducted research on the impact that motivation can have on an individual’s health. The results found that a strong drive to succeed can lead to stress, high blood pressure, and hormonal imbalances. This highlighted how internal factors, such as motives can trigger physical responses (Kurt, 2021).
In the Havard Business Review article written by David McCllenand and David H. Burham they discuss how prevalent power motivation is in today’s society especially amongst managers. To assess the motivation of managers, McCllenand and Burham examined multiple individuals from various large US corporations participating in management workshops aimed at enhancing their effectiveness. Their finding indicated that a successful top manager must have a strong need for power, this means a desire to influence other’s. However, this need must be disciplined and directed toward the overall benefit of the organisation rather than the manager’s personal gain. Furthermore, the top managers need for power should override their need to be liked (McCllenanf & Burham, 2024).

The correlation between social dominance and power motivation

Social hierarchy is a key component in many societies. A common aspect of any hierarchical structure is the use of a ranking system, where individuals with in each society hold a specific position or social status to others. While hierarchical ordering can be complex, it usually forms from one or more attributes, such as: race gender, income, education, ancestry and occupation, which can indicate level of status with in social groups. Structures such as these not only position each member as both a sender and recipient of status signals but also influences individuals behaviour based on these signals (Dubois & Ordabayeva, 2015). In their research paper, Understanding Social Hierarchies: The Neural and Psychological Foundations of Status Perception, Koski, Xie and Olson write how a number of studies discussed In their review focus on measuring or manipulating power and dominance instead of an objective rank. This approach is taken because power and dominance are often linked to status and are commonly used to understand the status of others. Power also refers to the control over resources or influence over a group of people, while dominance is understood as a contextual characteristic. Dominance is related to the ability to secure resources and can predict power, opening a perspective as a way to establish status across different group members. Dominance can be categorised into two different subscales: sociable and aggressive. These subscales highlight that power or access to resources can be gained through either aggressive, dominant behaviours or through prosocial, cooperative actions. Additionally, dominance is different from another aspect of social status, prestige. The relationship between status and prestige may have developed to enhance social learning, where group members show deference to those who possess valued qualities. Consequently, individuals with high prestige can exert influence over the group without resorting to the force or threat typically associated with dominance.

The consequences of Social domination and power motivation

Power can also be associated with hormonal and psychological changes. For example, testosterone is known to enhance dominance and other behaviours aimed at achieving social status. This influence of testosterone dominance behaviour can be affected by psychological stress and cortisol levels. High testosterone levels have been linked to the emergence of the socially harmful aspects of narcissism of those in power, and power dynamics interact with testosterone levels which can predict tendencies of corruption. Adopting high power nonverbal poses leads to psychological changes such as heightened feelings of power, reduced cortisol levels increased testosterone, and greater risk tolerance compared to individuals in. low power poses. Brain recordings have shown that losing social status can trigger a negative reward prediction error, this can activate the lateral hypothalamus and in turn stimulate the lateral habenula which is an anti reward centre, inhibiting the medial prefrontal cortex. Functional magnetic resonance imaging also known as fMRI has revealed through studies conducted observing a powerful individual activates the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and areas connected to the amygdala which is involved in emotional processing and medial prefrontal cortex which is related to social cognition, highlighting the neural processing of social ranking and status in humans. Additionally, fMRI results show that perceived social status can differently influence ventral striatal responses when processing cues related to social ranking and or status. Results from fMRI’s also indicate that low social status is linked to reduced grey matter volume in the pregenual area of the anterior cingulate cortex, which is associated with adaptive psychological, emotional, and behavioural responses to psychosocial and environmental stressors. Furthermore, approach related motivation is connected to increased left-sided frontal activity in the brain. Evidence supporting the relationship between approach related motivation and power has also been confirmed through EEG studies, showing that higher power is associated with greater left frontal activity compared to lower power (Tabore, 2023).

Learning features

A fun interactive feature I thought I might included is a questionnaire on social dominance orientation and finding out where you fall into the criteria of social dominance. To take the questionnaire please press the link below.

https://advance.oregonstate.edu/sites/advance.oregonstate.edu/files/sdo_scale_h2_v05292015.pdf

Links
Attached is a link to a YouTube video in which Dr Preston talks about male dominance in hierarchies. Dr Jordan Preston is a Canadian psychologist graduating from the University of Alberta with two bachelor’s degrees in political science and psychology. He then went onto graduate with a PhD from McGill University. In 1991 he published his first book, Maps of meaning: The Architect of belief. The booked focused on psychology, mythology, religion, philosophy and neuroscience. This set the foundation of his long and successful career and the basis of his many lectures.

https://youtu.be/rUiG5_GcMyY?si=IWxV8ZM36MA2rO5k

Quizzes

- What is the relationship between social domination and power motivation?

- What role do they play in modern day society?

- Will society every exist with out social domination and power motivation

Conclusion

In conclusion, social dominance and power motivation are contributing factors in understanding human behaviour and social dynamics. The Social Dominance Theory suggests that groups are able to maintain hierarchies through certain qualities, such as: discrimination and inequality. Hierarchies that include these qualities can lead to systematic advantages for certain groups while leaving out others. Whereas power motivation drives individuals to seek influence, control, and leadership roles within these structures. The interplay between social dominance and power motivation can be both positive and negative. Individuals who are motivated by desire to hold power can drive progress, inspire change, and attain a collective goal. Leaders who are able to use their power for the good, can innovationally contribute to social advancement. However, when power is used for personal gain it can perpetuate injustice and contribute to social divides. Individuals who manipulate their position to maintain dominance can lead to resistance from other's, conflict and begin a cycle of oppression that can be hard to break. Additionally, motivations behind social dominance can shape norms and values, influencing how power is perceived. Societies that prioritise principles tend to have cooperation and mutual respect, having a lessened chance of the negative implications of social hierarchies. Groups who tend to celebrate dominance could reinforce a toxic power dynamic, which can hinder group well being. Furthermore, addressing the challenges that social dominance and power motivation have, requirers a multi level approach. By promoting awareness of these concepts, we are able to encourage empathetic leadership, creating environments that value fairness. Through collaboration we can reduce the detrimental effects negative power can have. By striving for balance between individual and collective well being, societies can build a harmonious foundation, ensuring that the pursuit of power is used to uplift rather than creating a divide.

References

Pratto, F,. & Stewart, A. (2011). Social Dominance. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470672532.wbepp253

Roccato, M. (2014). Social Dominance Theory. In: Michalos, A.C. (eds) Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_2753#citeas

Winter, G, & Smith P,. (2009). Motivation and personality: Hand Book of thematic content analysis. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/motivation-and-personality/power-motivation-revisited/6239658999B7A3AF3027D2EFD2A2BD07

Chatgpt chat https://chatgpt.com/share/0dbe3121-740a-464d-a7f5-dcfa45608c21

Islam, G. (2014). Social Dominance Theory. In: Teo, T. (eds) Encyclopedia of Critical Psychology. Springer, New York, NY https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4614-5583-7_288#:~:text=SDT%20is%20a%20theory%20of,ramifications%20for%20thought%20and%20action.
Winter, D,G,. Power motivation revisited. In: Smith CP, ed. Motivation and Personality: Handbook of Thematic Content Analysis. Cambridge University Press; 1992:301-310 https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/motivation-and-personality/power-motivation-revisited/6239658999B7A3AF3027D2EFD2A2BD07
Roccato, M. (2014). Social Dominance Theory. In: Michalos, A.C. (eds) Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer, Dordrech. thttps://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_2753#:~:text=The%20SDT%20has%20been%20developed,Sidanius%20%26%20Pratto%2C%201999).
Sidanius, J., Pratto, F., & Brief, D. (1995). Group Dominance and the Political Psychology of Gender: A Cross-Cultural Comparison. Political Psychology, 16(2), 381–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/3791836
Schulthesiss, O, C,. & Brunstein, J, C,. (2010). Implicit Motives. Oxford University. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=3HZMCAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA3&dq=introduction+of+power+motivation&ots=Bc0Qdi7GCW&sig=nIs4UUcJM7wBvLzsLRnldR9z_T4#v=onepage&q=introduction%20of%20power%20motivation&f=false
Wang, J,. Qu, S,. Li, R. & Fu, Y,. (2022). Power motivation arousal promotes prosocial behavior in the dictator game depending on social presence .https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9635729/
Dubiou, D,. & Ordabayena, N,. (2015). Social Hierarchy, Social Status and Status Consumption. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David-Dubois-2/publication/283016882_Social_Hierarchy_Social_Status_and_Status_Consumption/links/56268ee708aeedae57dc75e3/Social-Hierarchy-Social-Status-and-Status-Consumption.pdf
Kurt, Serhat,. (2021). McClellands Three Needs Theory: Power, Achievement, and affiliation. https://educationlibrary.org/mcclellands-three-needs-theory-power-achievement-and-affiliation/
McClelland, D, C,. & Burnham, D, H,. (2003). Power is a great motivator. https://hbr.org/2003/01/power-is-the-great-motivator
Koski, J, E,. Xie, H,. & Olson I, R,. (2017). Understanding social hierarchies: The neural and psychological foundations of status perception. .https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5494206/

Tobore, T, O,. (2023). On power and its corrupting effects: the effects of power on human behavior and the limits of https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10461512/

https://www.mindtools.com/aznjntj/mcclellands-human-motivation-theory
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_dominance_theory
https://study.com/academy/lesson/social-dominance-theory-definition-examples.html#:~:text=Developed%20by%20psychologists%20Jim%20Sidanius,%2C%20race%2C%20religion%2C%20etc.

Point added for a correct answer:
Points for an incorrect answer:
Ignore the questions' coefficients: