Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Life satisfaction

Life satisfaction:
What are the main ingredients for life satisfaction?

Overview

Life satisfaction is typically defined as the way people perceive their well-being and quality of life through varying[vague] factors. It is most commonly measured subjectively by the individual through the use of self-report survey questionnaires (Arslan, 2019). Previous research has demonstrated that life satisfaction is strongly correlated to an individual's emotions and can have a significant influence over their mental health (Arslan, 2019).

The current research on the key contributors to life satisfaction plays a crucial role in our understanding of the emotions and motivations that drive us. Through this understanding we are able to take steps to further improve our life satisfaction and happiness.

By incorporating sound psychological theories into their research, psychologists are able to develop effective strategies to improve well-being and ensure individuals maintain these strategies throughout their lifespan. According to the Satisfaction with Life Scale, countries with the highest levels of life satisfaction typically have the best quality of life and fewer mental health issues[factual?]. For this reason, large economies continue to take steps to improve life satisfaction among the general public by changing policies and increase government spending in this area.

History and development of Life Satisfaction scales

Life satisfaction scales have been widely used in a number[vague] of contexts in psychological research as well as by large organisations such as the CIA and UNESCO.

The Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) is the most commonly used measure of life satisfaction and is supported by the majority of academic literature. The SWLS has high levels of internal consistency, meaning it can be be applied across age groups and the results can be generalised to the wider population (I'm not sure that's necessarily correct) (Diener, Suh, Lucas & Smith, 1999).

Contributors to Life Satisfaction

It is important to understand the theories and supporting research that examine factors that contribute to life satisfaction so as to design simple interventions to improve life satisfaction on a global scale.

Personality

The Five Factor Model of personality is a widely used and academically supported model for assessing personality within the field of psychology. The five factor model is composed of five central traits which are: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Previous research has demonstrated that the five aforementioned traits are correlated with life satisfaction, and measuring levels of these traits can allow for accurate prediction of an individual's life satisfaction (DeNeve & Cooper, 1998). Agreeableness has been used to predict life satisfaction in relation to major depressive disorder and depressive symptoms. People with low levels of agreeableness are more likely to be ostracized by their peers, exhibit argumentative behaviors, and experience more conflict (Hales, Kassner, Williams, & Graziano, 2016; Côté & Moskowitz, 1998). Lower levels of agreeableness are correlated with shorter life spans and reduced mental health which typically results in poorer life outcomes and lower reported life satisfaction (Farnam, Farhang, Bakhshipour, & Niknam, 2011; Ozer & Benet-Martínez, 2006).

These are great results to discuss, however, it would have benefited from you expanding on the studies (who were these results seen in? How were the results measured?)

Although personality may seem relatively rigid and difficult to change (why does it?), mood and emotions can be manipulated through psychological treatments and interventions to improve well-being (How does this second half relate to the first?). Experimental studies have successfully used cognitive based interventions to encourage supportive behaviors among participants to further improve life satisfaction (Mongrain et al., 2011). Mongrain et al. (2011) demonstrated that individuals who engaged in supportive behaviours were able to increase their levels of happiness, an improvement which was easily maintained over time.

Similarly, higher levels of compassion have been linked with kinder feelings towards both the self and others and has been shown to boost positive emotions (How does compassion relate to the five traits above?). Mindfulness techniques have become increasingly popular as an effective strategy to moderate emotions and improve life satisfaction. (Source?) Some studies have explored mindfulness techniques to improve compassion and potentially increase levels of agreeableness (Fredrickson, Cohn, Coffey, Pek, & Finkel, 2008).

Self-esteem

Self-esteem is commonly tested within satisfaction measures to assess well-being. The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) is the most common measure used by organisations around the world, as this scale allows researchers to assess and understand self-esteem across nations. Higher levels of self-esteem are strongly correlated with higher life satisfaction, thus, further increasing positive emotions, particularly in relation to the self. Self-esteem has since become one of the key indicators of overall life satisfaction and is a key factor within Lazarus' appraisal theory of emotion[factual?]. Within this model, self-esteem plays a significant role in appraisal of the self and a loved one which can impact on well-being (How does this relate back to life satisfaction). Researchers and clinicians encourage treatments that focus on improving self-esteem and positive emotions, such as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT).

Whilst the research presented above is comprehensive in demonstrating the importance of improve self-esteem, we must understand the potential implications of the self-improvement process. If an individual takes the self-improvement process too far, it can make the individual more vulnerable to experiencing psychological disorders such as depression, anxiety and anorexia nervosa (Crocker & Park, 2004).

The Theory of Positive Orientation has become popular to assist in the improvement of self-esteem by encouraging a more positive outlook on life. Caprara et al. (2010) investigated the triad of improving self-esteem, life satisfaction and optimism. This research found that treatment was more effective when focused on changing cognition, as improvements in the triad generally followed as a result from the interventions (Caprara, Alessandri & Barbaranelli, 2010; Alessandri, G., Caprara, G., & Tisak, J., 2012). Incorrect second citation

Outlook on life

Outlook on life is primarily focused on one's perception and personal evaluation of their life satisfaction. Typically, happier, more optimistic people have higher levels of life satisfaction[factual?]. Optimistic values and an overall positive outlook on life is commonly associated with better life satisfaction. At the opposite end of the spectrum, people who are more pessimistic are more likely to experience depression and other negative mental health issues (Caprara et al., 2009).

It is important to note that pessimism and pessimistic tenancies[spelling?] are often a symptom of depression and do not necessarily cause the disorder, although there is correlational evidence that links a pessimistic outlook to depression[factual?]. Pessimism and negative behaviors related to depression typically reduce as people engage in counselling or CBT treatments. Like most other emotional contributors to life satisfaction, optimism can be improved through psychological counselling treatments and interventions that incorporate the theory of positive orientation[factual?].

Definitions of optimism and pessimism would have enhanced this section

Age

Generally, life satisfaction tends to improve with age and wisdom acquired throughout the lifespan[factual?]. However, like most domains that contribute to life satisfaction, this can vary significantly within different age brackets.

In a study that examined life satisfaction trajectories of older individuals, researchers found that life satisfaction varied greatly within a single age bracket (Palgi & Shmotkin, 2010). Researchers have found that adolescents, when compared to older participants, experienced lower life satisfaction, which may be attributed to the amount of significant life experiences on has experienced (Goldbeck, Schmitz, Besier, Herschbach & Henrich, 2007). Researchers have hypothesised the reasoning behind the difference in life satisfaction levels is due to the limited life experience among adolescents, lower intelligence, and higher number of insecurities (Goldbeck, Schmitz, Besier, Herschbach & Henrich, 2007). Similar age related results have been demonstrated cross-culturally. A study that compared middle aged participants from the US and Japan found that both cultures experienced similar levels life satisfaction, and that perceived life satisfaction declined in the same way within the oldest age group (Hong, Charles, Lee & Lachman, 2019).

Life events and experiences

Our life, and thus satisfaction with life, is largely shaped by our life experiences. These influences can be divided into two categories: everyday experiences and larger events. It is important to note that our experiences are not the sole contributor to our life satisfaction. Twin studies and studies examining people who have experienced many of the same things may have differing levels of life satisfaction (DeNeve & Cooper, 1998).

Although these experiences can influence perceived life satisfaction it is the personal interpretation of these events that have the most impact[factual?]. As discussed earlier people with more optimistic tendencies are more likely to experience improved life satisfaction following a certain life event than those who are more pessimistic (Caprara et al., 2009).

Seasonal effects

Seasonal effects can vary from day to day and can be dependent on specific regions and weather patterns around the world. The effect of weather conditions alone have minimal impact on life satisfaction, however, it can contribute to decreased mood when paired with seasonal changes (Barrington-Leigh & Behzadnejad, 2017).

Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) is a widely recognized phenomena in which people experience decreased mood or depressive symptoms typically during winter (Oginska & Oginska-Bruchal, 2014). SAD is occasionally experienced during the summer months in which anxiety is a common symptom as opposed to depression, however, it is a less common occurrence.

It is hypothesized that reduced natural light exposure causes or at least contributes to SAD and reduced mood during winter, however, this does not adequately explain similar mood deficits during summer (Oginska & Oginska-Bruchal, 2014). Light therapy has been demonstrated to improve symptoms especially during winter, it is the easiest and most common treatment for this mood disorder. Anti-depressant medications, exercise and diet can also be beneficial in reducing symptoms (of?) and thus improving life satisfaction.

Values

Within groups, life satisfaction levels are individualistic, and often influenced by an individual's core values and beliefs. Personal values are those that motivate us to do perform actions and behaviours that align with our core values (Jongman-Sereno & Leary, 2019). The Expectancy-Value theory supports this as the combination of an individuals attitude and cultural norms influence behavior. This is then influenced by the value that is placed on that behavior and the expected outcomes. An example of this can be seen in individuals who value materialistic things over interpersonal values. Those who value materialistic objects tend to report lower life satisfaction and well-being which generally gets worse as material values increase and are not met (Georgellis, Tsitsianis & Yin, 2008).

In collectivistic cultures such as Japan or India, there is generally more social consensus of values which typically benefit the group over the individual. Suh et al. (1998) found that the group values for life satisfaction were closely aligned to individuals emotions. They suggested that when individuals aligned themselves and embodied the values of the group they reported higher levels of life satisfaction (Suh et al. 1998). These findings are more pronounced in collectivist cultures, however, are still present in individualistic cultures, with findings typically supported by the expectancy-value theory. Similarly, people that belong to religious groups and value respect towards members within their group have higher reports of life satisfaction (Georgellis, Tsitsianis & Yin, 2008).

Culture

Culture can generally be categorized into one of two domains. An individualistic culture, in which the individual is valued over the group. Or, a collectivist culture, in which the group and the collective goals are valued over the individual. There are a number of sub-categories within the two broad culture distinctions, however, these two are widely researched and findings are more easily generalized to the respective culture.

Individuals in individualistic cultures tend to exhibit more competitive behaviors as they strive to be better than or stand out from the group whilst limiting reliance on others. Within these cultures, individuals are more likely to experience loneliness and feeling excluded from the group (Georgellis, Tsitsianis & Yin, 2008).

Collectivist cultures generally promote higher social engagement and a collective pursuit of optimal life satisfaction (Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmeier, 2002). Between both cultures, the highest rates of life satisfaction typically arise from individuals who are more socially engaged (Uchida & Kitayama, 2009).

The facial-feedback hypothesis supports these findings as emotions and more specifically the expression of emotions is universal, however, the effectiveness of this in increasing life satisfaction warrants further research.

Family

Family can play a significant role in life satisfaction and the level of satisfaction can vary greatly depending on one's family unit and their influences. Families that value and emphasise effective, open communication tend to have higher reports of life satisfaction from each individual family member as well as the family unit as a whole (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009). These findings have been replicated in various studies around the world[factual?].

A Hong Kong based study examined effective communication interventions for families during dinner time and found that life satisfaction and family well-being improved (Ho et al., 2016). These results can be easily replicated in most family units as the interventions to increase supportive communication can be easily modified for any family, thus supporting social functions of emotion and improving emotional regulation.

The overall life satisfaction of family members can impact an individual's life satisfaction. Chopik and O'Brien (2017) demonstrated that the health and happiness of individuals were highly correlated with the health and happiness of their partner. This [which?] study suggests that individuals whose family units are healthy, with high levels of reported well-being are more likely to have higher reported life satisfaction when compared to families with lower overall well-being. This further applies to romantic partners, where individuals with happy partners experience higher life satisfaction and better general health (Chopik & O'Brien, 2017). The opposite can be seen in unhappy partners, where individuals experience more negative emotions and poorer health (Chopik & O'Brien, 2017).

Marriage and marital timing may also contribute to prolonged life satisfaction. Johnson et al. (2017) examined marital timing as a predictor for happiness and life satisfaction later in life. The results of this study demonstrated that individuals who married "on time" or later in life experienced higher self esteem, especially for middle aged men. The researchers noted that higher life satisfaction was not a result of the marriage but the prolonged partnership as part of the lead up to marriage. Suggesting that partners in an existing relationship that decided to marry "on time" or later in life had higher reported life satisfaction compared to couples who married early[grammar?].

Career

An enjoyable and fulfilling career plays an important role in life satisfaction as the average person spends approximately one third of their life working.

The need to achieve self-actualization was famously theorized in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and makes up part of the top tier in his hierarchy of needs. Once a level of needs are met and a person feels fulfilled, they can then progress to the next level. When a person experiences fulfillment in their career they tend to report higher levels of life satisfaction and overall happiness.

Money is a large contributor to many individuals' perceived life satisfaction, as people living in poverty or on extremely low income typically experience higher levels of depression, stress, and poorer life satisfaction (Kozan, Işık & Blustein, 2019). A correlation has been demonstrated between salary and life satisfaction in various nations around the world, however, increased salary does not negate the impact of negative consequences. Evidence in this area of research, for the most part, remains correlational (Kozan, Işık & Blustein, 2019). This evidence is weaker in developed nations as individuals are generally able to satisfy basic needs and have access to government resources even on an extremely low income, an occurrence not always afforded to those in developing nations (Cheung, 2018).

The current research suggests that employees that are paid a reasonable salary in an engaging and fulfilling job are less likely to experience financial stressors and negative mental health issues.

Quiz

	Joe who frequently spends his entire paychecks on the newest gadgets.
	Hannah who wants to start practicing mindfulness however can never find the time in her stressful life.
	Jeremy who has high levels of agreeableness and finds fulfilment in his job.
	Ashley who gets along well with her sister however has been ostracized by the rest of her family.

	Buying the trendy new sneakers that are all the rage this season.
	Spending quality time and engaging in supportive communication with loved ones.
	Not going outside during winter because it is too cold.
	Getting married three months into the relationship.

Conclusion

Life satisfaction is the way in which people perceive their well-being and quality of life, which is often subjectively measured using self-report questionnaires such as the Satisfaction with Life Scale. The main contributors to life satisfaction include: personality, self-esteem, outlook on life, age, life events and experiences, seasonal effects, values, culture, family and career. By engaging in self improvement techniques such as mindfulness and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, individuals are able to increase agreeableness, self-esteem and optimism. These improvements have been linked to increased levels of life satisfaction and meaningful relationships throughout one's lifespan. Therapies that target both cognition and behavior have been able to improve emotional regulation and overall happiness. Our knowledge on life satisfaction will continue to grow as new research continues to build upon existing psychological theories in this area.

References

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External links

A key to happiness (American Psychological Society)
Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (The Guardian, 2014)
Measuring what makes life worthwhile (TED Talk, Chip Conley, 17:26 mins)