Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Oxytocin and motivation

Oxytocin and motivation:
How does oxytocin affect motivation?

Overview

Case study: Jennifer

Meet Jennifer, a 32-year-old woman currently recovering from the birth of her firstborn child. She was elated to discover the news of expecting her first child, and spent the entirety of her pregnancy eagerly awaiting the birth. However, she faced tremendous difficulties during the birth of her daughter, Amanda. Afterwards, she found herself struggling to bond with her newborn. She was low in energy, motivation, and struggled to experience positive emotions. As time passed, the lack of emotional connection with her daughter further depleted her energy and decreased her motivation to spend time with Amanda.

Oxytocin, often referred to as the 'love-hormone', is a nanopeptide hormone produced in the hypothalamus of the brain, and is released into the bloodstream by the pituitary gland. The release of this hormone can be triggered due to various factors, such as activation of sensory nerves during labour, breastfeeding, and sexual activity, along with stimulation of the skin including response to touch, stroking, and warm temperature (Uvnäs-Moberg et al., 2015). Thus, it is commonly associated with sexual reproduction, prenatal and postnatal processes, bonding, relationships, and social interactions.

Due to the social nature of human beings, oxytocin is intrinsically connected to motivation, and can have substantial impacts on it. From an evolutionary perspective, our survival and sense of purpose is often tied to our relationships with others, constructing the fundamental human drive for connection and belonging. Through the facilitation of bonding, attachment, and social trust, oxytocin directly influences our motivation to pursue goals and actions that reinforces behaviours which promote social and emotional connections. This chapter explores oxytocin's role in shaping our social behaviours and relationships, providing insight into the biological underpinnings of motivation, and the hidden forces that drive human behaviour.

Focus questions:

What is oxytocin?
What triggers the release of oxytocin?
What role does oxytocin play in relationships?
How does oxytocin affect motivation?

Oxytocin and the neurobiology of motivation

Understanding the neurobiological mechanisms of oxytocin, particularly its production and release, offers valuable insights into the physiological processes underlying internal states like motivation, enhancing our understanding of these dynamics.

*Figure 2.* The location of the hypothalamus.

Production of oxytocin

The production of oxytocin takes place in the hypothalamus (see Figure 2). Despite being one of the smallest structures within the brain, it plays an invaluable role in many of the vital processes occurring within the body, including homeostasis (Saper & Lowell, 2014). It is also associated with regulating physiological functions such as body temperature, hunger and thirst, mood, sex drive, blood pressure and sleep (Cleveland Clinic, 2022).

As displayed in Figure 1, oxytocin is composed of nine amino acids (Cys–Tyr–Ile–Gln–Asn–Cys–Pro–Leu–GlyNH2) with a sulphur bridge between the two cysteines (Lee et al., 2009). The production of oxytocin occurs in the magnocellular neurosecretory cells of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei (PVN) within the hypothalamus (Lee et al., 2009). The PVN is a key autonomic control center in the brain, with its neurons playing crucial roles in regulating stress, metabolism, growth, reproduction, immune responses, and other vital autonomic functions (Ferguson et al., 2008).

This production process can be triggered by the activation of sensory nerves and stimulation of the skin, but other hormones in the body can also play a role in the production of oxytocin. In the female body, oestrogen has been shown to act as a transcription factor for oxytocin, increasing the binding of oxytocin and oxytocin production (Acevedo-Rodriguez et al., 2015; McCarthy, 1995; Quintana et al., 2024).

Release of oxytocin

The pituitary gland is an essential structure within the human body, even being titled "the master gland" for the various roles it plays (Ganapathy & Tadi, 2023). It is attached by a stalk to the hypothalamus (see Figure 3), and is responsible for the release of several complex hormones that travel through the bloodstream, including oxytocin (Guillemin & Burgus, 1972).

The magnocellular neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus store oxytocin in Herring bodies, located at the axon terminals in the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, from where it is secreted into the bloodstream (Patel & Tiwari, 2020). The release of oxytocin into the bloodstream occurs when neurons in the hypothalamus become electrically active, triggering its secretion (Society for Endocrinology, 2020). This is seen specifically during childbirth and lactation, in response to osmotic challenge (Young & Zingg, 2017).

The neurobiology of motivation

The process of oxytocin's production and release are crucial for understanding the neurobiological mechanisms of motivation. The release of oxytocin during childbirth, lactation, and social touch, promotes and reinforces behaviours such as bonding and social attachment. These behaviours impact motivation, as oxytocin interacts with brain regions like the amygdala and the nucleus accumbens, which are involved in reward, reduction in anxiety, and increased social interaction (Sobota et al., 2015).

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Oxytocin and maternal motivation

Due to oxytocin's impact on human behaviour and the human body, it is not a surprise for it to shape and affect our interpersonal and social relationships. Oxytocin has been associated with promoting human social interactions, and reducing fear and pain, along with physiological and psychological stress (Walter et al., 2021). Although oxytocin can have an impact on the trajectory of all social relationships and social motivation, one of the most significant impacts of it is evident in maternal motivation.

Maternal motivation refers to a mother’s desire and drive to engage or disengage in parenting behaviours, influenced by her emotional and motivational state. These motivational states are closely linked to specific emotions experienced during parenting challenges, and they play a crucial role in how mothers regulate their emotions and respond to their child (Hajal et al., 2019). Understanding the role of oxytocin in these states can provide insights into the complex dynamics between mother and children.

Pregnancy, childbirth, and maternal bonding

The role of oxytocin in mother and child relationships is evident from conception, is essential during parturition, and continues after the birth of the child[grammar?]. Pregnancy is a complex, and often chaotic process for the human body, as it facilitates the growth of another life inside of it. Hormonal fluctuations are a common occurrence during pregnancy, including evidence of increasing levels of oxytocin within the body (Soloff, 1982; Uvnäs-Moberg et al., 2019). One of the most critical roles of oxytocin is seen during childbirth, specifically in producing the uterine contractions responsible for the onset of labour (Fuchs et al., 1982; Prevost et al, 2014), and it is often provided synthetically to induce or speed up the process (Uvnäs-Moberg et al., 2019). Oxytocin also plays a pivotal role in lactation, inducing contractions of the myoepithelial cells in the mammary gland, stimulation the ejection of breastmilk (Uvnäs-Moberg, 2023; Prevost et al, 2014).

After birth, oxytocin has been shown to directly influence and facilitate bonding between mother and infant, protective maternal aggression, and maternal care behaviours (Walter et al., 2021). The release of oxytocin from skin-to-skin contact is a significant contributor in the physical and emotional bonding between mother and infant. Higher levels of oxytocin during the first trimester and early postpartum period are positively correlated with several other maternal bonding behaviours, including gaze with infant, and vocalisations to infant (Lee et al., 2009).

Postpartum depression

Postpartum depression (PPD) is a disorder that affects approximately 1 in 10 women (Carberg & Langdon, 2023), characterised by depressed mood, fatigue, low self-esteem, appetite and sleep disturbance, feelings of worthlessness or inappropriate guilt, and more (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Aside from its effects on the mother, postpartum depression is also likely to be present in the newborn, and cause a lack of bonding between mother and infant.

Low levels of oxytocin is a predictor and risk factor in the development and persistence of postpartum depression (Chen et al., 2022; Leziak et al., 2020), and are found to be lower in the mothers with depression and in their children (Baron-Cohen et al., 2021). Delivering oxytocin as a treatment for PPD is still a controversial issue as the research on this topic has generated mixed results. There is potential for oxytocin to improve parental behaviours in mothers with PPD, as it has been shown to enhance their perception of the relationship with the infants, reduce negative emotional responses in their relations, and increase their attention to baby (Leziak et al., 2020; Mah, 2016; Zhu et al., 2023), but all studies on this matter heavily emphasise the need for more research in order to clearly establish the role of oxytocin in treating PPD.

Case study: Jennifer

Jennifer’s partner, Melanie, grew increasingly concerned about the possibility of Jennifer having postpartum depression after seeing her suffering from low mood, fatigue, and being unable to bond with their daughter, Amanda. She encouraged Jennifer to seek medical help for her situation. After consulting with her doctor, Jennifer decided to partake in weekly therapy sessions with a psychologist, along with a treatment of intranasal oxytocin. Over the following weeks, both her and Melanie noticed gradual changes in her mood, energy levels, and connection with Amanda. Jennifer reported feeling a renewed sense of motivation to interact with and care for Amanda, as well as an increasing feeling of protectiveness over her. Melanie noticed a surge in affectionate touch and physical connection between the two, along with a lift in both of their moods.

Oxytocin and sexual motivation

Sexual motivation, also referred to as libido, can be described as the urge or drive to engage in sexual activity. Human behaviour, choices, and relationships may be impacted drastically in order to fulfil the physiological need for sex. Understanding the relationship between sexual motivation and oxytocin could provide us with a nuanced insight on the biological and emotional mechanisms that drive intimate relationships, bonding, and reproductive behaviours.

Oxytocin and sexual arousal

Oxytocin plays a significant role in the processes that promote sexual arousal in both men and women. One of the first areas where oxytocin’s function was first described was in sexual intercourse, as the stimulation of the vaginal and cervix causes its release (Fineberg & Ross, 2017). Oxytocin also facilitates arousal by increasing genital vasocongestion, lubrication, blood flow, sensitivity in the genital regions (Calabrò et al., 2019). The sex hormone oestrogen significantly increases oxytocin binding in the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus, the infusion of oxytocin in this brain area leading to an increase in female sexual behaviour (McCarthy, 1995). Oxytocin was also found to positively impact several sexual functions such as libido, erection, and orgasm (MacDonald Feifel, 2012). The evidence of increased levels of oxytocin after an orgasm in women (Blaicher et al., 1999, Carmichael et al., 1987) is also a clear indication of oxytocin's major role in the human sexual response.

Oxytocin, sex, and relationships

In the instances of romantic relationships, sex, and therefore oxytocin, play a significant role in not just the development of relationships, but also throughout the duration of them[improve clarity]. Oxytocin levels were found to be significantly higher in new lovers than in singles, indicating increased oxytocinergic activity during early romantic attachment, which remained stable over six months and correlated with couples' positive interactions and relationship anxieties, suggesting that oxytocin plays a crucial role in the initial stages of romantic bonding (Schneiderman et al., 2012). ‌Sexual compatibility in a couple can also easily dictate the duration and satisfaction of a relationship. The release of oxytocin during intimate touch and sexual activity between romantic partners often results in pair bonding (Ross & Young, 2009), increasing commitment and attachment to each other.

Conclusion

The hormone oxytocin plays a pivotal role in motivation across various aspects of life. Oxytocin not only facilitates bonding and attachment, but also significantly influences emotions and behaviours that drive social interactions. From the complexities of maternal motivation to sexual motivation and romantic attachment, oxytocin emphasises our desire for connection and nurture, playing a vital role in shaping our interpersonal relationships and the actions we take. The role of oxytocin in maternal motivation cannot be undermined, as it affects a mother's drive to engage in caregiving behaviours, facilitates emotional bonding, and supports physical and psychological needs during pregnancy, childbirth, lactation, and the postnatal period. Through the promotion of connection and protective instincts, oxytocin helps mothers navigate the emotional and physical challenges of motherhood, and increases maternal motivation. High levels of oxytocin are positively associated with nurturing behaviours and are imperative for establishing a strong mother-infant bond, while low levels can increase the risk of postpartum depression and hinder bonding. Future research should continue to explore the potential of oxytocin as a treatment for postnatal complications. In regards to sexual motivation, elevated oxytocin levels foster sexual arousal and compatibility, leading to romantic attachment and commitment. The influence of oxytocin extends beyond physiological processes into the emotional and psychological realms of the human mind, ultimately shaping our motivations and guiding us toward fulfilling our fundamental need for connection and belonging.

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External links

Oxytocin, Motivation and the Role of Dopamine (National Centre for Biotechnology Information)
Oxytocin May Increase Fathers’ Motivation to Care for Their Children (MedicalNewsToday)
Oxytocin Turns Up the Volume of Your Social Environment (University of California, Davis)
Research on the Female Brain is Long Overdue! Oxytocin, Dopamine and Motivation. Morgan Johnston (YouTube)