Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Neuroscience of unexpected positive outcomes

Neuroscience of unexpected positive outcomes:
What is the neural response to unexpected positive outcomes?

Multimedia presentation (3 min)

Overview

Imagine receiving an unexpected bonus at work or finding a $20 bill on the street. These surprising, positive outcomes can create a burst of happiness and excitement, significantly influencing your future behavior. This immediate emotional boost and reinforcement illustrate the profound impact of unexpected rewards on shaping our actions and decisions.

Unexpected positive outcomes are crucial because they trigger powerful emotional responses and enhance our ability to remember and repeat behaviors associated with these rewards. This phenomenon is central to psychological science, which explores how such rewards influence learning and emotional states. When we experience unexpected rewards, our brain’s reward system—comprising the ventral Tegmental area (VTA), nucleus Accumbens (NAcc), and prefrontal cortex (PFC)—becomes activated, processing these rewards and reinforcing behaviors that led to them (Schultz, 2015).

Figure 1. a computed tomography of the human brain

Understanding this process is important for various real-world applications, from improving educational strategies and therapeutic interventions to optimising marketing approaches. Psychological science offers insights into how the release of neurotransmitters like dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine affects our responses to rewards, helping us design better reinforcement strategies (Cohen et al., 2002; Pizzagalli, 2014).

Case Study: Sarah Sarah, a high school teacher, implemented a new strategy in her classroom to boost student engagement. She introduced an element of surprise by giving out unexpected rewards for exemplary work, such as gift cards or extra credit. This approach aimed to capitalise on the psychological impact of unexpected positive outcomes to enhance student motivation and performance. Sarah noticed that despite her best efforts, many students were disengaged and lacked motivation to excel. Traditional methods of rewards and punishments were not yielding significant improvements in student performance or enthusiasm. Sarah's strategy was based on psychological principles that emphasise the power of unexpected positive outcomes in shaping behavior. Research shows that such rewards trigger stronger emotional responses and enhance memory retention, which can lead to improved learning and behavior (Schultz, 2015). The brain’s reward system, including the ventral Tegmental area (VTA) and nucleus Accumbens (NAcc), plays a crucial role in processing these rewards and reinforcing desired behaviours (Kringelbach, 2004).

Food for Thought - How do unexpected positive outcomes affect brain activity and emotional responses? - What role do key neural circuits, such as the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens, play in processing unexpected rewards? - How does dopamine release influence our reaction to unexpected positive outcomes? - What are the implications of reward prediction error for learning and behavior in the context of unexpected rewards?

Introduction: Understanding the Significance of Unexpected Positive Outcomes

Why are unexpected positive outcomes important in shaping behaviour and decision-making?

Unexpected positive outcomes are crucial in shaping behaviour and decision-making because they trigger a stronger emotional response and enhance memory retention. These outcomes reinforce learning and adaptive behaviour, leading to changes in future decision-making processes. They influence our choices by making the associated actions more likely to be repeated (Schultz, 2015).

How do these outcomes influence our learning processes and emotional states?

Unexpected positive outcomes impact learning processes by enhancing reward-based learning through the release of dopamine, which reinforces the connection between behaviour and reward (Kakade & Dayan, 2002). Emotionally, these outcomes can lead to positive emotional states, such as happiness or satisfaction, which further reinforce the learned behaviour (Berridge & Robinson, 2003).

The Brain's Reward System: An Overview of Key Neural Circuits

• The key neural circuits involved in the brain's reward system include the ventral tegmental area (VTA), nucleus accumbens (NAcc), and the prefrontal cortex. These circuits are crucial in processing rewards and reinforcing behaviour (Kringelbach, 2004).

• The reward system processes expected outcomes by predicting rewards and reinforcing behaviour when the prediction is accurate. However, when an outcome is unexpected, the system generates a reward prediction error signal, leading to increased dopamine release and stronger reinforcement of the behaviour associated with the unexpected reward (Schultz, 2015).

2.1 The Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) and Dopamine Signalling

• What role does the VTA play in dopamine signalling, and how does this relate to reward processing? (Wise, 2004).
• How does the release of dopamine from the VTA differ in response to expected versus unexpected rewards? (Schultz, 1998).

2.2 The Nucleus Accumbens (NAcc) and Reward Anticipation

• How does the NAcc contribute to the anticipation and processing of rewards? (Knutson & Cooper, 2005).
• What changes occur in the NAcc during unexpected positive outcomes? (Hollerman & Schultz, 1998).

2.3 The Role of the Prefrontal Cortex in Reward Processing

• How does the prefrontal cortex integrate information about rewards? (Miller & Cohen, 2001)
• What role does the prefrontal cortex play in modulating behaviour based on reward outcomes? (Moayedi et al., 2014)

Neurotransmitters Involved in the Processing of Unexpected Positive Outcomes

• Dopamine is the primary neurotransmitter involved in processing unexpected positive outcomes. Serotonin and norepinephrine also play modulatory roles, influencing mood, arousal, and the overall emotional response to rewards (Cohen et al., 2002).
• Dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine work together to influence our response to rewards by modulating different aspects of the reward experience. Dopamine primarily drives the learning and reinforcement aspects, while serotonin and norepinephrine modulate mood and arousal, ensuring that the emotional response aligns with the reward's significance (Hollerman & Schultz, 1998).

3.1 Dopamine: The Central Player in Reward Prediction Error

• Why is dopamine considered central to the concept of reward prediction error? (Schultz, 1997)
• How does dopamine signalling change in response to unexpected positive outcomes? (Schultz, 2007)

3.2 The Modulatory Roles of Serotonin and Norepinephrine

• How do serotonin and norepinephrine modulate the brain's response to rewards? (Pizzagalli, 2014)
• What are the distinct roles of these neurotransmitters in shaping mood and arousal during unexpected positive outcomes? (Aston-Jones & Cohen, 2005)

The Concept of Reward Prediction Error: Mechanisms and Neural Correlates

• Reward prediction error is the difference between expected and actual outcomes. It is critical for learning and behaviour adjustment because it signals when outcomes differ from expectations, prompting the brain to update its predictions and modify behaviour to optimise future rewards (Pearce & Hall, 1980).
• Key brain regions involved in detecting and responding to reward prediction errors include the VTA, NAcc, and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). These regions work together to process the discrepancy between expected and actual rewards and to adjust behaviour accordingly (Schultz, 1998).

4.1 Defining Reward Prediction Error

• How is reward prediction error defined within the context of cognitive neuroscience? (Schultz, 1997)
• Why are positive prediction errors particularly important in the reinforcement of behaviour? (Sutton & Barto, 2018).

4.2 Neural Mechanisms: From Prediction to Surprise

• What neural mechanisms underlie the transition from expectation to surprise? (Kakade & Dayan, 2002).
• How do these mechanisms contribute to updating our predictions and behaviours? (Schultz, 2007).

Behavioural Implications of Unexpected Positive Outcomes

• Unexpected positive outcomes reinforce adaptive behaviours by strengthening the neural connections associated with those behaviours. The release of dopamine in response to these outcomes enhances the likelihood of repeating the behaviour that led to the reward (Bandura, 1997).
• The broader behavioural implications of experiencing unexpected rewards include increased motivation, improved decision-making, and enhanced learning. These outcomes can lead to more adaptive and flexible behaviour, as individuals become better at adjusting their actions based on new information (Hollerman & Schultz, 1998).

5.1 Learning and Memory: Reinforcement of Adaptive Behaviours

• How do unexpected positive outcomes reinforce learning and memory? (Schultz, 1998)
• In what ways can these outcomes lead to more adaptive behaviour? (Daw et al., 2006)

5.2 Decision-Making: The Impact of Surprises on Risk-Taking

• How do positive surprises influence risk-taking behaviour in decision-making? (Kahneman & Tversky, 1979)
• What neural processes are involved in adjusting decisions after an unexpected positive outcome? (Tobler et al., 2003)

Applications in Real-World Scenarios

• The principles of reward prediction error can be applied to real-world situations by using positive reinforcement to encourage desired behaviours, improve learning outcomes, and enhance overall motivation (Schultz, 2006).
• Understanding how the brain processes unexpected positive outcomes has practical implications for fields such as education, therapy, and marketing, where strategies can be developed to leverage reward mechanisms and improve outcomes (Thaler, 2016).

6.1 Educational Strategies: Enhancing Learning Through Positive Reinforcement

• How can educators use unexpected positive outcomes to enhance student learning? (Hattie & Timperley, 2007)
• What strategies can be developed based on the neuroscience of reward prediction error? (Schultz, 2007)

6.2 Clinical Interventions: Leveraging Reward Mechanisms in Therapy

• How can therapeutic approaches benefit from understanding the brain's response to unexpected positive outcomes? (Kazdin, 2008)
• What role do positive reinforcement and reward prediction error play in clinical settings? (Vlaev & Dolan, 2015)

Case Study: Sarah After implementing the new strategy, Sarah observed a marked increase in student engagement and performance. The unexpected rewards not only motivated students to put in more effort but also improved their overall enthusiasm for learning. The positive emotional response to these rewards reinforced their commitment to academic excellence. Sarah's case demonstrates the effectiveness of using unexpected positive outcomes to enhance motivation and performance. By leveraging insights from psychological science, educators can design more effective strategies that capitalize on the brain's reward system to foster better learning environments.|} Figures Figure 2. Example of an image with a descriptive caption. Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etcetera Embed figures throughout the chapter, including the Overview section Figures should be captioned (using Figure #. and a caption). Use captions to explain the relevance of the image to the text/ Wikimedia Commons provides a library of embeddable images Images can also be uploaded to Wikimedia Commons if they are openly licensed Refer to each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) Tables Use to organise and summarise information As with figures, tables should be captioned Refer to each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) Example 3 x 3 tables which could be adapted Table 1. Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table and its Relevant to the Text - Johari Window Model Known to self Not known to self Known to others Open area Blind spot Not known to others Hidden area Unknown Quizzes Choose your answers and click "Submit": 1 The prefrontal cortex plays a role in integrating information about rewards: True False 2 The nucleus accumbens (NAcc) is not involved in reward processing: True False Conclusion The Conclusion is arguably the most important section Suggested word count: 150 to 330 words It should be possible for someone to only read the Overview and the Conclusion and still get a pretty good idea of the problem and what is known based on psychological science Suggestions for this section: What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? What are the answers to the focus questions? What are the practical, take-home messages? (Even for the topic development, have a go at the likely take-home message) See also Reward System - An overview of the brain's reward system, including key circuits like the VTA and NAcc (Wikipedia) Fundamentals of Neuroscience/Emotion - A detailed educational resource on the neuroscience and emotion, including the concept of reward prediction error (Wikiversity) References Aston-Jones, G., & Cohen, J. D. (2005). An integrative theory of locus coeruleus-norepinephrine function: adaptive gain and optimal performance. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 28(1), 403–450. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135709 Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Berridge, K. C., & Robinson, T. E. (2003). Parsing reward. Trends in Neurosciences, 26(9), 507–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0166-2236(03)00233-9 Cohen, J. D., Braver, T. S., & Brown, J. W. (2002). Computational perspectives on dopamine function in prefrontal cortex. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 12(2), 223–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0959-4388(02)00314-8 Daw, N. D., O’Doherty, J. P., Dayan, P., Seymour, B., & Dolan, R. J. (2006). Cortical substrates for exploratory decisions in humans. Nature, 441(7095), 876–879. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04766 Grossberg, J. M. (1964). Behavior therapy: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 62(2), 73–88. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0041033 Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The Power of Feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81–112. https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298487 Hollerman, J. R., & Schultz, W. (1998). Dopamine neurons report an error in the temporal prediction of reward during learning. Nature Neuroscience, 1(4), 304–309. https://doi.org/10.1038/1124 Homberg, J. R. (2012). Serotonin and decision making processes. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 36(1), 218–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.06.001 Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision under Risk. Econometrica, 47(2), 263. https://doi.org/10.2307/1914185 Kakade, S., & Dayan, P. (2002). Dopamine: generalization and bonuses. Neural Networks, 15(4-6), 549–559. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0893-6080(02)00048-5 Kazdin, A. E. (2008). Evidence-based treatment and practice: New opportunities to bridge clinical research and practice, enhance the knowledge base, and improve patient care. American Psychologist, 63(3), 146–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.63.3.146 Knutson, B., & Cooper, J. C. (2005). Functional magnetic resonance imaging of reward prediction. Current Opinion in Neurology, 18(4), 411–417. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.wco.0000173463.24758.f6 KRINGELBACH, M. (2004). The functional neuroanatomy of the human orbitofrontal cortex: evidence from neuroimaging and neuropsychology. Progress in Neurobiology, 72(5), 341–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2004.03.006 Miller, E. K., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). An Integrative Theory of Prefrontal Cortex Function. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24(1), 167–202. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.167 Moayedi, M., Salomons, T. V., Dunlop, K. A. M., Downar, J., & Davis, K. D. (2014). Connectivity-based parcellation of the human frontal polar cortex. Brain Structure and Function, 220(5), 2603–2616. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-014-0809-6 Pearce, J. M., & Hall, G. (1980). A model for Pavlovian learning: Variations in the effectiveness of conditioned but not of unconditioned stimuli. Psychological Review, 87(6), 532–552. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295x.87.6.532 Pizzagalli, D. A. (2014). Depression, Stress, and Anhedonia: Toward a Synthesis and Integrated Model. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 10(1), 393–423. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185606 Schultz, W. (1997). Dopamine neurons and their role in reward mechanisms Electronic identifier: 0959-4388-007-00191 0 Current Biology Ltd ISSN 0959-4388 Abbreviations GABA y-aminobutyric acid NMDA N-methyl-o-aspartate TD models temporal difference models. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 7, 191–197. Schultz, W. (1998). Predictive Reward Signal of Dopamine Neurons. Journal of Neurophysiology, 80(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.1998.80.1.1 Schultz, W. (2000). Multiple reward signals in the brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 1(3), 199–207. https://doi.org/10.1038/35044563 Schultz, W. (2006). Behavioral Theories and the Neurophysiology of Reward. Annual Review of Psychology, 57(1), 87–115. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070229 Schultz, W. (2015). Neuronal Reward and Decision Signals: From Theories to Data. Physiological Reviews, 95(3), 853–951. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00023.2014 Sutton, R. S., & Barto, A. G. (2018). Reinforcement Learning, second edition. Google Books. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=uWV0DwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=Reinforcement+Learning:+An+Introduction&ots=mjpHu2Z3h1&sig=DmRSFiMhDhJo_Em4kc7gjRqZa-k#v=onepage&q=Reinforcement%20Learning%3A%20An%20Introduction&f=false Thaler, R. H. (2016). Behavioral Economics. Tobler, P. N., Dickinson, A., & Schultz, W. (2003). Coding of Predicted Reward Omission by Dopamine Neurons in a Conditioned Inhibition Paradigm. The Journal of Neuroscience, 23(32), 10402–10410. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.23-32-10402.2003 Vlaev, I., & Dolan, P. (2015). Action Change Theory: A Reinforcement Learning Perspective on Behavior Change. Review of General Psychology, 19(1), 69–95. https://doi.org/10.1037/gpr0000029 Wise, R. A. (2004). The neurotransmitter dopamine -particularly nigrostriatal dopamine (BOX 1) -has long been identi- fied with motor function. NATURE REVIEWS | NEUROSCIENCE, 5. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1406 Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. Motivation Science, 4(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 External links Provide external links to highly relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. Use sentence casing. For example: Six top tips for writing a great essay (University of Melbourne) The importance of structure (skillsyouneed.com) Suggestions for this section: Only select links to major external resources about the topic Present in alphabetical order Include the source in parentheses after the link About me User:Jana2345