Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Goals and emotion

Goals and emotion:
What is the relationship between goals and emotion?

Multimedia presentation (3 min)

Overview

Figure 1. Sarah the ambitious entrepreneur Scenario Sarah is an ambitious entrepreneur with a dream of starting a successful business. At first, Sarah is energised and delighted, motivated by the vision of doing something important. However, as obstacles arise—missed deadlines, financial difficulties, and a lack of sales—her feelings change. Frustration, self-doubt, and worry emerge, threatening to derail her progress. Despite the losses, glimpses of optimism and small successes reignite her enthusiasm, reminding her of why she set this aim in the first place. This emotional journey highlights how goals and emotions are deeply linked. The accomplishment of a significant aim, such as Sarah's, can elicit both positive and negative emotions. These feelings, in turn, impact her dedication to her objective. When Sarah's emotions are strong, her drive can either increase, driving her beyond difficulties, or drop, leading to procrastination and exhaustion.

Goals influence emotional states by instilling expectations and emotional engagement in what is achieved. Emotions may either drive or hinder goal achievement, with good emotions increasing motivation and negative emotions possibly limiting development. Achieving academic goals increases pleasant feelings and self-esteem, but failing can cause negative emotions and diminished motivation. Positive emotions promote goal-directed conduct, whereas negative emotions can either inspire or impede development, depending on their severity. Understanding the relationship between objectives and emotions helps with goal-setting, emotional control and personal growth.

This chapter investigates the complex link between emotions and objectives, focusing on how emotional states influence performance, determination, and overall achievements. Theories like Goal Setting Theory, Control-Value Theory, and Self-Determination Theory give a framework for understanding this emotional dynamic, while goal-setting strategies like the SMART framework provide practical ways to align emotions with goals. Individuals who grasp the emotional components of goal pursuit can improve their resilience and boost their chances of success, eventually transforming emotional hurdles into stepping stones to advancement in both their professional and personal lives.

Focus questions: What should be considered when setting goals? How do goals influence emotion? How do emotions affect goal pursuit? How can achieving goals affect one's emotional state?

Emotion

Emotions are a complex psychological state that involves four distinct components Feelings, Bodily Responses, Sense of Purpose and Expressive Behaviours (Reeve, 2018).

Figure 2. Categories of Emotion

Feelings are an individual's subjective perception of emotions. They reflect the personal and internal aspects of emotion that an individual consciously feels (Reeve, 2018).

Bodily responses are the physiological changes that follow emotions. The autonomic nervous system normally controls these reactions, which include changes in heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, and hormone levels (Reeve, 2018).

Sense of purpose refers to the motivational component of emotion. Emotions often arise with a specific function or goal in mind, influencing the direction of behaviour (Reeve, 2018).

Expressive behaviours are the outward, observable manifestations of emotion. These behaviours include facial expressions, body language, tone of voice, and gestures (Reeve, 2018).

Emotions an intricate psychological construct that connects and organises these four elements of experience into a synchronised pattern. (Reeve, 2018). They are short-lived feelings that arise in response to certain stimuli or situations (Adolphs et al., 2019). Our thoughts, behaviours and interactions with others are influenced by emotions.

Goal setting

Goal Setting fosters accountability and improves decision-making, while boosting self-confidence (Lunenburg, 2011). By establishing clear objectives, individuals can prioritise tasks, track progress, and enhance productivity (Reeve, 2018). Goal setting helps in efficient time management and contributes to personal and professional development by encouraging the acquisition of new skills and overcoming challenges. Difficult goals energise the performer, specific goals direct the performer and self-concordant goals both energise and direct the performer (Reeve, 2018). A similar model by Edwin Locke and Gary Latham (1990) recognises five key principles in goal setting. It suggests that creating specified and difficult goals, together with adequate feedback, leads to considerably improved task performance.

Important aspects to consider for goal setting from Reeve (2018)

Goal difficulty: refers to how hard the goal is to accomplish. The harder the goal, the more it motivates the performer (Reeve, 2018). This is because people exert effort in proportion to what the goal requires of them. For example, small goals require minimal effort, medium goals stimulate medium effort, and large goals encourage high effort.

Goal specificity: refers to how clearly a goal informs the performer precisely what they need to do (Reeve, 2018). This is important because specific goals can highlight what an individual needs to do while reducing ambiguity in thought and performance variability. For example, a goal of “work quickly” produces various of performances whereas a goal of “complete the task within 2 minutes” produces a smaller range of performances that revolve around the goal.

Goal congruence: self-congruent goals are ones that align with the individual’s interests, needs and values (Reeve, 2018). They are goals that feel authentic and reflect the individual’s self. These goals are important because it allows the individual to draw from personal resources which motivates goal pursuit (Reeve, 2018).

Difficult, specific and congruent goals enhance performance

Difficult goals excite the performer, precise goals guide the performer, and self-concordant goals energise and direct the performer. This model can be compared with Locke and Latham’s Goal Setting Theory, a more developed and well-known framework within psychology.

Goal Setting Theory

Goal setting theory by Edwin Locke and Gary Latham (1990) suggests that creating specified and difficult goals, together with adequate feedback, leads to considerably improved task performance (Yurtkoru et al., 2017). Goal Setting Theory is an extremely useful framework for analysing motivation and performance.

Table 1. Principles of The Goal Setting Theory

Key Component	Definition
Clarity	When asked to achieve a specific high-performance goal, individuals are inclined to perform better. Specific objectives (often measurable) tell the individual what to aim for and allow them to track their own progress (Lunenburg, 2011). According to research, particular goals help to achieve other desired organisational goals, such as lowering absenteeism, tardiness, and turnover (Locke and Latham, 2002).
Challenge	The degree of difficulty of a goal is critical to its motivating impact. Challenging objectives are more motivating than simple goals since they involve more effort and promote greater achievement (Lunenburg, 2011). However, if a goal is viewed as excessively tough or unreachable, it can cause irritation and low motivation (Locke and Latham, 2002).
Commitment	To attain an objective, individuals must be dedicated to it. Commitment is reinforced when people believe the objective is significant, linked with their particular beliefs or interests, and attainable (Locke and Latham, 2002). Being active in goal setting can also boost commitment.
Feedback	Feedback assists individuals in meeting their performance goals (Lunenburg, 2011). Feedback is beneficial in two essential ways. For starters, it allows individuals to assess their performance. Second, feedback assists people in determining what kind of modifications need to be made to their performance that are necessary to improve (Lunenburg, 2011).
Task Complexity	For challenging tasks, it is critical to divide objectives into smaller, more achievable sub-goals. As the complexity of the activity develops, more time, preparation, and strategy may be required (Locke and Latham, 2002). Setting subgoals might help individuals stay motivated and monitor their progress more regularly (Locke and Latham, 2002).

Comparing the two

Both Reeve and Locke and Latham's models offer useful insights into how objectives impact motivation and performance. Reeve's paradigm emphasises personal alignment (goal congruence) and intrinsic drive, specifically how self-concordant objectives may energise and direct an individual. Locke and Latham, on the other hand, provide a more complete paradigm that considers feedback, task difficulty, and the larger cognitive and behavioural processes that impact goal attainment.

Reeve's framework is especially valuable for understanding human motivational dynamics, but Locke and Latham's model offers a more precise guidance for organising goal setting in a practical context, whether for personal growth or organisational success.

How goals influence emotion

When a person sets a goal, they become emotionally invested in its outcome. The anticipation of achieving the goal can evoke positive emotions or conversely, the possibility of failure can trigger anxiety, stress, or fear. This emotional investment creates a feedback loop where the progress toward the goal continuously influences one's emotional state.

The Control-value theory by Pekrun (2006) suggests that emotions linked to goal achievement arise based on two appraisals:

• Control: This refers to how much control or influence a person believes they have in reaching their goal (Pekrun, 2006).
• Value: This refers to the personal emphasis or value an individual places on reaching the objective (Pekrun, 2006).

The theory recognises that goal effects on emotions are mediated by self-appraisals (Pekrun and Stephens, 2009)

The theory emphasises that positive emotions such as happiness or motivation arise when people believe they have control over a desired objective and anticipate attaining it (Pekrun, 2006). Whereas negative feelings, such as worry, humiliation, or frustration, might occur when a person doubts their ability to achieve a desired objective or encounters difficulties (Pekrun, 2006).

For example, if a student sets a goal of achieving good marks, and feel that they have the capacity (control), and regards high grades as significant (value), they are more likely to experience positive emotions such as motivation and pride while working towards this goal (Tze et al., 2021). In contrast, if they appreciate good grades but question their capacity to get them, they may experience worry or powerlessness (Simonton & Garn, 2020).

This can be supported by Puente-Díaz (2013) who found that goals have the ability to significantly influence emotions through shaping expectations, directing focus and determining the outcomes that are significant to the individual. A study by Artino et al. (2012) highlights the importance of incorporating a high degree of control and value in learning environments to further foster motivation to achieve goals for students.

Key points Control-Value Theory states that emotions associated with goal success are determined by perceived control over outcomes and the value assigned to the objective. High control and value produce happy emotions, whereas little control produces negative emotions. Goals shape emotions by directing expectations and attention. Studies demonstrate that instilling a sense of control and goal relevance boosts motivation and pleasant emotions, especially in learning contexts.

How emotions can affect goal pursuit

Findings of Benita et al. (2020) found that integrative emotion regulation (IER) promotes goal pursuit, but suppressive emotion regulation (SER) impedes it. The study found that positive emotions, such as enthusiasm and optimism, often enhance motivation and persistence, making it easier to engage in goal-directed behaviours. These emotions can foster creativity, problem-solving, and resilience, which are crucial for overcoming obstacles (Benita et al., 2020). On the other hand, negative emotions like anxiety, frustration, or fear can have a dual effect. In some cases, these emotions can serve as a motivator, pushing individuals to work harder to avoid negative outcomes. However, when these emotions become overwhelming, they can impair decision-making, reduce focus, and lead to procrastination or even abandonment of the goal (Benita et al., 2020).

Figure 3. Components of the self-determination theory

This can be compared with the Self-determination theory by Deci and Ryan (1985) who highlight the role on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in goal achievement and emotional experience. The theory recognises autonomy, competence and relatedness and three basic psychological needs. Goals that meet core psychological requirements such as autonomy, competence, and relatedness are likely to elicit good feelings. Intrinsically driven objectives (those pursued for real interest or personal fulfilment) elicit higher levels of pleasant emotion than extrinsically motivated ones (Ryan et al., 2009).

• Autonomy is the desire to feel in control of one's actions and decisions. It entails acting in accordance with one's actual self and principles, independent of external pressures.
• Competence is the requirement to feel successful and capable of accomplishing desired results. It motivates people to seek challenges and conquer things.
• Relatedness is the need to feel connected, valued, and relevant in connections with others, which promotes a sense of belonging and community.

Gagné (2015, pp. 400–410) recognises consistent findings that autonomous goals were significant associated with greater goal progress overtime. Research highlights that having goals closely aligned to personal interests and values was consistently related to greater goal progress. This can be supported with further findings that found a small effect size between goal autonomy and goal progress. This is significant as it poses an underestimation of the importance of autonomy in goal pursuit because autonomy has the ability to exert indirect effect on goal pursuit by creating goal-supporting behaviours. Results of studies recognise that autonomy may indirectly foster greater goal progress (Gagné, 2015, pp. 400–410). As a result, autonomy plays an important, indirect role in pursuing goals.

The self-determination theory also highlights intrinsic and extrinsic goals.

• Intrinsic Goals: goals that fulfil these psychological needs, such as personal progress or relationships, tend to evoke positive emotions because they are aligned with an individual’s inner values and self-identity (Ryan et al., 2009).
• Extrinsic Goals: Goals that are externally motivated such as financial gain or fame can sometimes lead to negative emotions, can cause anxiety and pressure if they do not correspond with an individual's beliefs (Ryan et al., 2009).

According to the notion, objectives that are in line with one's inner values and sense of self lead to higher levels of emotional well-being. When people pursue goals that meet their intrinsic needs, they frequently experience joy, happiness, and fulfilment because these goals align with their sense of identity (Ryan et al., 2009). However, pursuing goals for external motives might elicit contradictory emotions. For example, a person pursuing a promotion may be driven by recognition and financial incentives, but they may also experience stress and anxiety because of the pressure to perform.

Quiz

1 Intrinsic goals, which align with personal values, are more likely to evoke positive emotions than extrinsic goals:

	True
	False

2 According to Self-Determination Theory, goals that satisfy autonomy, competence, and relatedness are likely to evoke negative emotions:

	True
	False

3 Research indicates that goals aligned with personal values tend to show greater progress over time due to the indirect influence of autonomy:

	True
	False

The emotional impact of achieving goals

The emotional impact of achieving or failing to achieve academic goals is critical in shaping students' motivation, self-efficacy, and overall academic experience. With both successes and failures producing distinct emotional outcomes that can have a significant impact on future performance and engagement.

Academic goals can be defined as particular objectives or aims that students set for their educational success. These goals can include both short-term goals, such as completing assessment tasks on time or increasing marks on a particular subject, and long-term goals such as graduation with a certain degree or achieving academic honours. Academic goals can help direct students focus, effort and motivation shaping their study habits and strategies for success in their academic journey. These goals are closely related to students’ personal goals and can also have a substantial impact on their academic behaviour and performance.

Findings from Seifert (1997) discovered a relationship between emotions and goal orientation. Seifert (1997) emphasised that although environmental factors influence achieving goals, the way students feel about themselves is also a determinant of goal orientation. Results from the study also highlighted that the relationship between students and teachers was an importance factor in fostering feelings of self-assuredness which leads to learning and goal orientation.

More recent studies from Ren et al. (2022) explores this further with results suggesting that student academic goals and emotions can assist in explaining how teacher support affects confidence in their academic abilities. The findings recognise that students who achieve their academic goals often experience heightened levels of satisfaction and confidence, which can further enhance their motivation to pursue future goals. The found relationship between teacher support and self-efficacy emphasises that mediators play a major role in achieving academic goals through emotions. Ren et al. (2022) highlights that students who do not meet their academic objectives may experience a decline in self-esteem and increased stress, potentially leading to academic burnout or disengagement. This underscores the significance of teachers focusing on not just on providing support but also on addressing students' emotions, as these play an important role in their academic success. This study helps us to better understand how teacher support boost’s student’s self-confidence which then leads to motivation to achieve academic goals.

This can be further supported by research from Liu et al. (2019) who found self-efficacy to be a major contributor to the success of students in academic performance. It is also suggested that it may improve university students’ psychological self-adjustment abilities when faced with learning challenges which contributes to supporting student emotions. The study highlights the importance of improving students learning abilities to enhance achievement of academic goals (Liu et al., 2019).

To summarise, the emotional impact of meeting or failing academic goals has a substantial impact on students' motivation, self-esteem, and overall academic experience. Teacher support and emotional control are critical in assisting students to maintain resilience and continue working towards their objectives, especially after failures.

Key points Achieving or failing academic objectives has an emotional influence on pupils, altering motivation, self-esteem, and academic performance. Teacher support is critical in developing students' confidence and resilience, which promotes greater goal orientation and perseverance. Self-efficacy is essential for academic achievement because it improves students' capacity to manage problems and control emotions, hence increasing motivation and performance.

Final quiz

1 Setting specific, challenging, and self-congruent goals increases the likelihood of success:

	True
	False

2 Negative emotions like frustration and doubt only hinder progress and have no potential to motivate goal pursuit:

	True
	False

3 Achieving a goal always results in positive emotions and increased motivation for future goals:

	True
	False

Conclusion

Emotions play an important part in forming our path to achieve our goals, serving as both a motivator and a possible barrier. The dynamic relationship between goals and emotions demonstrates that success is more than just meeting objectives; it is also about regulating the emotional responses that develop along the process (Ryan et al., 2009).

Understanding this relationship enables people to utilise positive emotions to fuel determination and creativity, as well as recognise and mitigate the influence of negative emotions when they become overwhelming (Pekrun and Stephens, 2009). Goal Setting Theory, Control-Value Theory and Self-Determination Theory are theories that provide useful insights into how our feelings of control, worth, and motivation impact our emotions while we pursue the goals we set. Furthermore, adopting frameworks like SMART to define clear, demanding, and congruent objectives can help channel emotional energy more efficiently towards desired outcomes (Bowman et al., 2015).

Finally, learning to handle the emotional hurdles of goal pursuit is critical for personal and professional development. Individuals who cultivate emotional resilience may sustain motivation and attention in the face of adversity, turning the emotional highs and lows of goal pursuit into stepping stones to greatness.

The key take home message is that effectively regulating emotions is critical for accomplishing goals since they have a substantial impact on motivation, determination, and overall performance.

See also

• Emotion (Wikipedia, 2024)
• Goal conflict and emotion (Book chapter, 2014)
• Goal setting (Wikipedia, 2024)
• Goal setting techniques (Book chapter, 2018)
• Goal sharing and goal pursuit (Book chapter, 2018)
• Long-term goal achievement (Book chapter, 2016)

References

Adolphs, R., Mlodinow, L., & Barrett, L. F. (2019). What is an emotion? Current Biology, 29(20), R1060–R1064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2019.09.008

Artino, A. R., Holmboe, E. S., & Durning, S. J. (2012). Control‐value theory: Using achievement emotions to improve understanding of motivation, learning, and performance in medical education: AMEE Guide No. 64. Medical Teacher, 34(3), e148–e160. https://doi.org/10.3109/0142159x.2012.651515

Benita, M., Shechter, T., Nudler‐Muzikant, S., & Arbel, R. (2020). Emotion regulation during personal goal pursuit: Integration versus suppression of emotions. Journal of Personality, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12599

Bowman, J., Mogensen, L., Marsland, E., & Lannin, N. (2015). The development, content validity and inter-rater reliability of the SMART-Goal evaluation method: A standardised method for evaluating clinical goals. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 62(6), 420–427. https://doi.org/10.1111/1440-1630.12218

Gagné, M. (2015). The Oxford handbook of work engagement, motivation, and self-determination theory (pp. 400–410). Oxford University Press.

Izard, C. E. (2019). Emotion Theory and Research: Highlights, Unanswered Questions, and Emerging Issues. Annual Review of Psychology, 60(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163539

Liu, X., Gao, X., & Ping, S. (2019). Post-1990s College Students Academic Sustainability: The Role of Negative Emotions, Achievement Goals, and Self-efficacy on Academic Performance. Sustainability, 11(3), 775. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11030775

Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task motivation: a 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57(9), 705–717.

Lunenburg, F. C. (2011). Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL of MANAGEMENT, BUSINESS, and ADMINISTRATION, 15(1).

MacLeod, L. (2012). Making SMART Goals Smarter. Physician Executive, 38(2).Pekrun, R. (2006). The Control-Value Theory of Achievement Emotions: Assumptions, Corollaries, and Implications for Educational Research and Practice. Educational Psychology Review, 18(4), 315–341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-006-9029-9

Pekrun, R., & Stephens, E. J. (2009). Goals, Emotions, and Emotion Regulation: Perspectives of the Control-Value Theory. Human Development, 52(6), 357–365. https://doi.org/10.1159/000242349

Puente-Díaz, R. (2013). Achievement Goals and Emotions. The Journal of Psychology, 147(3), 245–259. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2012.683893

Reeve, J. M. (2018). Understanding motivation and emotion (7th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Ren, X., Jing, B., Li, H., & Wu, C. (2022). The impact of perceived teacher support on Chinese junior high school students’ academic self-efficacy: The mediating roles of achievement goals and academic emotions. Frontiers in Psychology, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1028722

Ryan, R. M., Williams, G. C., Patrick, H., & Deci, E. L. (2009). 2009 RyanWilliamsPatrickDeci HJOP. Hellenic Journal of Psychology, 6(1). https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2009_RyanWilliamsPatrickDeci_HJOP.pdf

Seifert, T. L. (1997). Academic goals and emotions: results of a structural equation model and a cluster analysis. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 67(3), 323–338. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1997.tb01247.x

Simonton, K. L., & Garn, A. C. (2020). Control–value theory of achievement emotions: A closer look at student value appraisals and enjoyment. Learning and Individual Differences, 81(1), 101910. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101910

Tze, V. M. C., Li, J. C.-H. ., & Parker, P. C. (2021). A mediation analysis of emotions based on the control-value theory. Current Psychology, 42(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01840-2

Yurtkoru, E. S., Bozkurt, T., Bektas, F., Ahmed, M. J., & Kola, V. (2017). Application of goal setting theory. Pressacademia, 3(1), 796–801. researchgate. https://doi.org/10.17261/pressacademia.2017.660

External links

• Academic goals and how to set them (Chaudhry, 2024)
• A complete guide to goal setting (Youtube, 2018)
• Goal orientation (ScienceDirect, 2015)
• How to write SMART goals (Atlassian, 2023)
• Negative emotions (Better Health Channel, 2024)
• Why the secret to success is setting the right goals (TED talk, 2018)