Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Emotional literacy

Emotional literacy:
What is emotional literacy, why is it important, and how can it be developed?

Multimedia presentation (3 min)

Overview

Figure 1. An example of a life-altering event is a funeral, as it involves dealing with one's own feelings as well as the emotions of other attendees. Consider the following ... How do you know what you feel? How do you know what others feel? Those are questions you may ask yourself after a significant life-altering event. These events can include graduating from university or getting engaged. In such situations, it can be difficult to fully process the emotions associated with these events or even know how to react to them. A common example of a significant life-altering event is a funeral (see Figure 1) because it involves responding to the death of a person, especially if they have both positive and negative relationships with attendees. Thus, it can be difficult to know how to react appropriately.

Emotional literacy is a skill that uses one's ability to manage their emotions and recognise the feelings of others (Alemdar & Anılan, 2020). It is related to emotional intelligence, but the difference is that intelligence is the potential for emotional fluency which is innate, whilst literacy is the demonstration of those skills and strategies that show emotional fluency (Bocchino, 1999).

This book chapter explains emotional literacy, how it develops, and why it is so important.

Focus questions: What is emotional literacy? What factors contribute to the development and functioning of emotional literacy? Why is emotional literacy important?

What is emotional literacy?

The most cited definition of emotional literacy comes from the work of Claude Steiner (1997), who states that:

"Emotional literacy is made up of 'the ability to understand your emotions, the ability to listen to others and empathise with their emotions, and the ability to express emotions productively." (Steiner & Perry, 1997, p. 11).

Emotional literacy builds upon the concept of Emotional Intelligence (Goleman, 1995). This is because emotional literacy is the demonstration of skills that require Emotional Intelligence. An example emotional literacy can be seen using the Transactional Analysis (TA) framework developed by Eric Berne (1971):

Example - A conversation between a mother and her daughter. Emotional literacy in a TA framework (Table 1) involves recognising what personality is speaking and what personality is being addressed. This example involves a conversation between a mother and daughter, the daughter attempts to hold an Adult-Adult conversation with her mother (the daughter's Adult personality trying to engage with the mother's Adult personality). In response, however, the mother responds with a Parent-Child response (The mother's Parent personality addressing the daughter's Child personality). This can lead to "crossing" where misunderstandings occur and in this example leads to the daughter feeling hurt because they did not expect to be addressed that way. In this example, a demonstration of emotional literacy would be if the mother recognised that her daughter was trying to appeal to her Adult personality and, in turn, responded to her daughter's Adult personality. Table 1. Aspects of Personality according to TA + psychoanalytic counterparts TA Framework Brief Explanation Psychoanalytic Framework The Parent How individuals act and what they tell others, based on what their parental (e.g. family members) and authority figures (i.e. governments and teachers) told them was right. The Superego - The component driven by morality The Adult Thoughts and behaviours derived from careful consideration and intellect. The Ego - The component driven by rationality The Child Thoughts and behaviours derived from emotions such as happiness and sadness (e.g. sentimental thinking). The Id - The component driven by pleasure

Background history and literature review

In the mid-20^th Century, Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen (1971) identified basic emotions (e.g., happiness, sadness) that were similar across cultures and provided a basis for the study of emotion. During this time, John Bowlby (1969) made advancements in developmental psychology with attachment theory, which suggested that infants needed at least one parental caregiver to develop healthy emotional functioning. Mary Ainsworth (1971) expanded on Bowlby’s research by categorising different styles of attachment and how they affected the social and emotional development of infants.

Emotional literacy can be derived from Peter Salovey and John D. Major’s (1990) concept of emotional intelligence (EQ). This is the defined as the ability to monitor the thoughts coming from oneself in addition to others and using that information to guide one’s own thinking. In 1995, Daniel Goleman popularised this concept in his book, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. He explained that it could be used outside academic circles and in public life through leadership, drawing attention other related concepts like emotional awareness, soft skills and empathy. The demonstrations of which would later become the foundations of emotional literacy as illustrated by Steiner and Perry (1997).  

What factors contribute to the development and functioning of emotional literacy?

The factors that affect the development of emotional literacy come from both the individual and the environment. The individual factors include personality traits as well as neurocognitive and personality disorders. The Environmental factors include parental, educational and sociocultural influences.

Individual factors

Figure 2. OCEAN is a common framework for exploring personality traits. OCEAN stands for Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism.

The effects of personality traits are significant because they influence the development of emotional literacy. The Big Five, or the OCEAN framework (see Figure 2), as conceptualised by Costa & McCrae (1992), influences how individuals engage with emotional literacy. Individuals with high Openness are more likely to engage with their emotions as well as the emotions of others (Tett et al., 2005) which reinforce the development of emotional literacy. Conscientiousness involves the exhibition of self-discipline which can aid emotional regulation (Brackett et al., 2011) and subsequently emotional literacy. Extraverted individuals are more likely to interact socially with others and express emotions more openly, which can aid their awareness of other people’s emotions (Petrides et al., 2010). Agreeableness is related empathy, trust and altruism which are traits that motivate emotional literacy (Graziano & Tobin, 2002). Neuroticism by contrast is associated with emotional instability and thus more difficulty with emotional regulation and literacy (Lopes et al., 2005). In summary, openness, conscientiousness, extraversion and agreeableness all correlate with increased emotional literacy skills, whilst neuroticism inhibits it.

Psychological disorders can also affect an individual’s emotional literacy and its expression. These include neurocognitive disorders like Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), and Alzheimer’s disease, as well as personality disorders such as Narcissism and Histrionic Personality Disorder (HPD). Neurocognitive disorders affect emotional literacy by hindering the expression of emotion due to how each condition damages the brain. Examples include ASD, where the differences in neuron structure prevent the individual from properly identifying tone, body language and emotional expression (Golan et al., 2006). Alzheimer’s disease affects emotional literacy through the decay of the brain and its self-control mechanisms, which lead to emotional blunting and difficulties in emotional recognition (Bediou et al., 2009). Personality disorders can have the same effect as neurocognitive ones, however the dynamic centres on the psychological rather than the biological processes of the mind. Examples of this include Narcissism which involves inflated self-importance at the cost of other people's feelings (Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001) and HPD which is the opposite as emotional bonds with people are exaggerated resulting in over-dependence on others (APA, 2013).

Environmental factors

Parents are the most direct influences on emotional literacy development as they provide a frame of reference for emotional interactions as well as being a first source of emotional education. This is documented by Ainsworth’s (1978) theory of attachment (Table 2), which provided a foundation for understanding how parental influences affect emotional literacy development. Parents who are responsive to their child’s emotional needs foster emotional literacy as it teaches them the labels for emotions, and how to manage them and creates a supportive environment for emotional development (Gottman et al., 2013). Children also model their emotional behaviour by observing and imitating their parents (Bandura, 1977; Eisenberg et al., 1998). If these parents have a healthy expression of emotions (i.e. effective anger management and showing of empathy), the child will develop stronger emotional literacy, whilst if the parent acts in an emotionally unhealthy way the child’s emotional development will in turn be impaired (Brackett, 2019; Thompson, 2008).

Table 2. Ainsworth's (1978/2015) Attachment Theory with examples. Positive view of self Negative view of self Positive view of caregivers Secure Attachment - A child feels safe exploring, knowing their caregiver will provide comfort when needed. Anxious Attachment - A child becomes highly upset when the caregiver leaves and struggles to be comforted when they return. Negative view of caregivers Avoidant Attachment - The child shows little emotional response when the caregiver leaves or returns Disorganised Attachment - The child displays confusing or contradictory behaviours, like approaching the caregiver but retreating.

Like parenting, education also plays a significant role in the development of emotional literacy as that is where children begin to interact with strangers, but it also supplements the development of social and emotional competencies. This is done in three ways, SEL programs (Durlak et al., 2011), Teachers that serve as role models for students (Bandura, 1977; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009) as well as cognitive and language development (Izard et al., 2004). SEL or Social-Emotional Learning programs are initiatives that are designed to help students develop emotional literacy skills (Durlak et al., 2011; Goleman, 1995), by teaching them conflict-resolution and communication skills as well as build empathy. The quality of the teacher-student relationship is also important because the teachers can provide students with a real-life model for emotional literacy, helping them learn through observation and imitation (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). Education also impacts emotional literacy development through cognitive and language development, where students improve their ability to label their emotions and build up an emotional vocabulary (Izard et al., 2004). This also improves emotional literacy because students are taught to apply more nuance to social situations (Izard et al., 2004).

Culture is a unique variable in emotional literacy development because it does not positively or negatively affect it (Bornstein et al., 2012; Cole et al., 2006). This is because it influences how it manifests itself in an individual and what purpose they use emotional literacy for. Cultural differences affect emotional expression and perception because they are socialised differently (Bozicevic et al., 2016). For example, individualist cultures (e.g. the United States) often emphasise the expression of emotions related to emotional achievement (e.g. pride and anger), whilst collectivist cultures (e.g. East Asia) focus on social harmony (e.g. shame or guilt) (Mesquita & Walker, 2003). Another instance of this is that individualistic cultures encourage open emotional self-expression and autonomy, whilst collectivist cultures prioritise emotional restraint to preserve social harmony and awareness (Matsumoto et al., 2008).  

Why is emotional literacy important?

Emotional literacy is important because it significantly contributes to various aspects of life. Its benefits are seen in two domains - Improving one’s mental health and improving one’s relationships. The former involves Increased mental resilience (Frederickson, 2001; Tugade & Frederickson, 2004) and better emotional regulation (Gross, 2002; Larsen et al., 2009), whilst the latter involves effective communication (Brackett et al., 2011; Salovey & Sluyter, 2008) as well as empathy and social skills (Denham et al., 2015; Goleman, 1995).

Stronger relationships

Emotional literacy as a skill helps an individual’s empathy which is the accurate recognition of other people’s feelings that bolsters their social skills. The importance of emotional literacy in an empathetic context is discussed by Goleman (1995), who states that it helps individuals pick up on non-verbal cues (such as body language and tone of voice). It is also the ability to understand another individual’s perspective, which is critical for providing emotional support (i.e. compassion) to other people (Denham et al., 2015).

Figure 3. An argument can often result from a lack of perspective. Thus, it is important to look at other perspectives.

This also relates to social skills which help individuals navigate complex social situations often using conflict management and diplomacy. People with high levels of emotional literacy are better equipped to manage their own emotions during disagreements and prevent impulsive behaviours like angry outbursts (Brackett et al., 2011). They are also effective at conflict management due to increased empathy, which can lead to mutually agreeable solutions (See Figure 3). The emotional awareness provided helps individuals de-escalate conflict (Brackett, 2019; Brackett et al., 2011). Diplomacy skills are also elevated by emotional literacy because it allows an individual in a discussion to raise issues, concerns and difficult emotions without antagonising the other individuals in the discussion (Salovey & Sluyter, 2008).

Improved mental health

Mental resilience is the ability to endure stressful situations and recover from adverse circumstances. Emotional literacy is crucial because it aids the management of emotions and maintenance of mental health during turbulent times as well as its nourishment during peace. It does this through emotional awareness and flexibility. Emotional awareness involves being aware of one’s own emotions which helps identify triggers and stressors that evoke negative emotions or reactions. Being emotionally literate allows one to take proactive steps like problem-solving, seeking support, or practising self-care to deal with stressors (Frederickson, 2001). Emotional literacy improves one's emotional flexibility due to a larger emotional vocabulary. This is helpful for individuals who score high on neuroticism because emotional flexibility can serve as a buffer to the associated emotional instability (Schutte et al., 2002). This is because emotional flexibility allows individuals to perceive negative experiences in a balanced perspective, focusing on permanent solutions rather than being paralysed by immediate emotional responses. This flexibility is also a protective factor against anxiety, depression and chronic stress (Tugade & Frederickson, 2004).

Emotional regulation is one of the core components of emotional literacy, and it involves self-regulation and impulse control. Emotional literate individuals know how to regulate their emotions, especially during challenging or emotionally charged situations. They can manage negative emotions like frustration and sadness by recognising these feelings early and employing strategies (e.g. mindfulness, cognitive reappraisal) to mitigate them and calm themselves (Frederickson, 2001). This prevents emotional reactions from becoming too damaging to the individual and others that surround them (Gross, 2002). As a core component of emotional literacy, emotional regulation also improves impulse control. Emotionally literate people are less likely to act on intense emotions (i.e. lashing out at another person in anger or planning under stress). Instead, they can pause, appraise the situation and orient themselves towards long-term goals (Larsen et al., 2009).

Conclusion

Emotional literacy is a natural extension of EQ because it is a demonstration of it. It is used to cope with stressful situations and interact with other people. Its development and functioning are affected by individual factors such as personality and psychological disorders (neurocognitive and personality disorders) and environmental factors such as parental, educational, and cultural influences.

Personality traits associated with openness, conscientiousness, extraversion and agreeableness are positively correlated with emotional literacy whilst neuroticism is negatively correlated. Neurocognitive disorders such as ASD, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease negatively affect emotional literacy due to the changes in neural structure and damage to the brain. Personality disorders like ASPD, Narcissism and HPD negatively affect emotional literacy through their differing emotional dynamics.

The environment provided by parents and education can positively and negatively affect the development of emotional literacy through the provision of role models, safe spaces and instruction. Culture primarily affects how emotional literacy is expressed as individualist cultures encourage open expression of emotions relating to individual achievement (e.g. pride and triumph) whilst collectivist cultures emphasise social harmony through emotions like shame and guilt.

The importance of emotional literacy is its benefits to mental health through resilience and emotional regulation and improved relationships through empathy and social skills (e.g. diplomacy and conflict management).

Quiz: What have you learned? Emotional literacy is a learnable skill not an inherent trait. So, attempt the questions which are based on short case studies. (Don't worry, each answer has accompanying feedback). 1 David tends to interrupt people during meetings when he feels passionate about a topic. His colleagues feel dismissed and frustrated by this. According to emotional literacy principles, David should... Continue interrupting, as his enthusiasm shows he cares about the topic. Stop speaking in meetings altogether to avoid any conflicts. Become more aware of his emotional responses, practice listening actively, and wait until others finish speaking before contributing. Explain to his colleagues that his interruptions come from passion and ask them to accept this behaviour. 2 Lisa is often overwhelmed by her emotions during difficult conversations and tends to react impulsively. Based on emotional literacy principles, Lisa should... Pause when she feels overwhelmed, acknowledge her emotions, and respond thoughtfully. Avoid conversations that could make her emotional. Focus solely on expressing her feelings, regardless of how the other person might react. Pretend she’s not feeling emotional enough to get through the conversation quickly. 3 Imagine you are leading a team, and one member is struggling with deadlines, leading to tension in the group. As a leader with high emotional literacy, you should... Confront them in front of the group to make an example of them. Approach the team member privately, ask them how they’re feeling about the deadlines, and offer support to help them manage their workload better. Ignore the issue and hope it resolves itself over time. Tell them they need to stop missing deadlines or risk losing their position on the team.

See also

• Alexithymia (Book chapter, 2015)
• Alexithymia (Wikipedia)
• Emotional literacy (Wikipedia)
• Transactional analysis and emotional literacy (Book chapter, 2021)

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External links

• Lael Stone: How to raise emotionally intelligent children (TED talk, 2020)
• Emotional knowing and emotional literacy (Psychology Today, 2022)
• Social and Emotional Learning Programs (ACT Government, 2024)