Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Emotion and time perception

Emotion and time perception:
How does emotion affect perceptions of time?

Overview

Scenario You're seated in a large exam room, surrounded by other students, waiting for the proctor to signal the start of your final exam. The silence is heavy, and you can feel the tension in the room. As you glance at the clock, you notice the second hand ticking away slowly, with each second stretching endlessly.

Finally, the exam begins. You dive into the questions, and suddenly, time seems to accelerate. The two-hour exam feels like it’s over in minutes, and as the proctor announces, "Time’s up," you can’t believe how fast it flew by.

But how can time feel so different in the same setting?

This chapter focuses on understanding how emotional states such as stress, anxiety, or excitement can alter our perception of time. While the clock objectively ticks away at the same pace, our internal emotional experiences can distort our sense of time. This is especially relevant in high-pressure settings like exams, where time perception plays a critical role in performance. Through examining how emotions influence our sense of time, we can learn to manage stressful situations more effectively and even improve productivity in time-sensitive tasks.

Focus questions:

How do different emotions alter the perception of time?
How does emotional time perception affect everyday life?
How can awareness of emotional time distortion be beneficial?
What role do individual differences play in how emotions affect time perception?

Understanding time perception and its importance

Time perception, or how individuals experience time, is shaped by emotions and mental state. While clocks measure time objectively, individuals internal experiences often distort it. For example, anxiety can make time drag, while enjoyable activities can make it feel like time flies. This difference is reflected in sayings like "time flies when you're having fun" or “a watched pot never boils” (Moreira & Barbosa, 2024).

Objective time follows a clock, but subjective time varies depending on focus and emotions. When calm or focused, time might seem to pass normally. However, stress or distraction can stretch or compress our sense of time (Gabel et.al., 2022).

Factors like mood, attention, and stress levels affect time perception. When an individual is absorbed in tasks, time seems to pass quickly, but stress or boredom slows it down. These distortions impact decision-making, productivity, and well-being (Gabel et.al., 2022).

Understanding how emotions influence time perception can help manage stressful situations better. For instance, recognising how time feels in high-pressure settings (like exams) allows individuals to regulate our emotions and use time more effectively. Mindfulness and stress management can also improve focus and time perception (Sarigiannidis et.al., 2020).

In short, emotions shape how time is experienced and learning to manage these factors can improve productivity, decision-making, and emotional well-being (Ma et al., 2021).

The Influence of Emotions on Time Perception

Emotions play a crucial role in shaping our perception of time. Whether we're feeling happy, sad, or anxious, our emotional state can significantly alter how quickly or slowly time seems to pass.

Anxiety

Anxiety often causes time to feel as though it is slowing down. In stressful situations, the brain activates the fight-or-flight response, increasing awareness of the environment, including time. This heightened focus makes each moment seem longer (Moreira & Barbosa, 2024). For example, when waiting for an important event like an exam, anxiety can heighten awareness of time passing, making the wait feel much longer than it actually is. This response is driven by the brain’s survival instinct, which focuses on processing information that is crucial for survival, such as the passage of time, which then results in the feeling that time is dragging on (Gabel et.al., 2022).

Happiness

On the other hand, when people are happy, time often seems to fly by. Enjoyable activities tend to pull attention away from the clock, which means that someone's full full focus will be on what’s happening in the moment (McRobbie, 2023). This is especially true during "flow states," when someone becomes so engrossed in what they’re doing that they completely lose track of time (McRobbie, 2023). Whether it’s spending time with loved ones, enjoying a hobby, or doing something that brings joy, these moments show how happiness shifts attention away from time, creating the feeling that it has passed quickly. The more absorbed we are, the less we notice time slipping by (McRobbie, 2023).

Interest and Attention

Similar to happiness, how interested and focused we are on something has a big impact on how we experience time. When we're really concentrating and focused, time often seems to move faster. This is sometimes called being "in the zone," when deep focus makes us lose track of time (McRobbie, 2023). The mental effort required for a task, known as cognitive load, also plays a part and means that when we're fully engaged, time tends to speed up. This can happen not only during fun or exciting moments but even during neutral or routine activities. For example, even a “boring” task can seem to go by quickly if someone is fully absorbed in it (McRobbie, 2023).

Bordem[spelling?]

Boredom tends to have the opposite effect, making time feel like it’s dragging on. When we're not interested or engaged in what we're doing, it can seem like time stretches out endlessly (Wat, 1991). Research shows that boredom can distort our sense of time, making everything feel slower, which often leads to frustration and impatience (Wat, 1991). This happens a lot in places like waiting rooms, long meetings, or stretched out lectures, where there’s not much to keep the mind occupied (McRobbie, 2023). Not only does boredom slow down our perception of time, but it can also hurt productivity, as the frustration it brings can reduce motivation and focus (McRobbie, 2023).

Theories on Time Perception

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The Attentional Gate Model

The Attentional Gate Model (Zakay & Block, 1997) offers a simple way to understand how our emotional and cognitive states impact time perception. According to this model, time perception depends on how frequently an “attentional gate” opens to allow pulses from an internal clock to pass into an accumulator (Bangert et.al., 2020). These pulses are counted to estimate how much time has passed and emotional states, such as stress or anxiety can influence how often this gate opens (Bangert et.al., 2020).

When individuals are calm and focused, the attentional gate opens less frequently, meaning that there are less pulses being accumulated. As a result of the fewer pulses, time seems to move faster because our attention is mainly focused on the task at hand (Bangert et.al., 2020). On the contrary, in stressful or anxiety inducing situations, such as an exam or an interview, the gate opens more frequently, meaning that there are more pulses to pass through and accumulate. This increased attention to a task can make moments feel longer, leading to feeling that time is dragging on (Bangert et.al., 2020).

In everyday life, this model explains why waiting for something important can feel never-ending as anxiety heightens an individual's awareness of time which then leads to an overestimation of its passage. Previous research has supported this model and has linked emotional arousal to altering time perception. For example, studies have found that individuals under stress typically tend to overestimate time due to the frequent opening of the attentional gate (Zakay & Block, 1997). This model also shows the role of focused attention because during high engagement to a task, sich as preparing for an exam or working on a project, time is noticed less by individuals because the attentional gate allows for less pulses to go through, which creates the feeling of time moving faster as are less aware of it (Bangert et.al., 2020).

Scalar Expectancy Theory

The Scalar Expectancy Theory, introduced by Gibbon in 1977, builds onto the attentional gate model. In this theory, an individual's internal pacemaker continues to generate pulses, which the accumulator counts (Zakay & Block, 1996). However, the differentiating factor in this theory is that individuals also compare these accumulated pulses to a mental reference memory of time intervals that have been experienced in the past. This comparison helps judge whether the time passing feels “normal” or if it feels distorted (Zakay & Block, 1996).

When an individual experiences heightened emotional arousal such as during moments of anxiety or excitement, this comparison can lead to an altered perception of time. The brain ends up counting more pulses than expected in a specific timeframe, making it feel like time is dragging on (Zakay & Block, 1996). For example, when an individual is anxious before a big presentation, the sensation of time can stretch out because their brain perceives more pulses than it usually would.

On the contrary, during low arousal situations or when an individual is highly engaged in an activity, their brains may underestimate the number of pulses, which can create the feeling that time is flying by (Zakay & Block, 1996). For example, think about how quickly time passes when you’re engaged in a good book or having fun with friends, your internal clock will go faster and you end up losing track of time.

This theory helps explain why time perception can feel so different from one situation to the next and emphasises the importance of both emotional arousal and past experiences in shaping our internal clock.

The Attentional Gate Model and Scalar Expectancy Theory offer complementary perspectives on how emotions can shape an individual's perception of time. Together, they help to understand the relationship between cognitive load, emotional arousal, and attention. But understanding these theories goes beyond explaining the psychology behind time perception as they also have practical implications

Impacts of Emotional Time Perception

The way emotions distort our perception of time has major impacts on many different aspects of life. This section dives into how emotional time perception affects our daily lives, decision making processes, health and well-being.

Daily life and productivity

When people feel happy, it’s common for time to seem to fly by. This sense of time speeding up can boost engagement and productivity in activities (Ma et al., 2021). eelings of sadness or boredom can make time drag, leaving individuals feeling less motivated and effective (Gable et al., 2022). Emotions that are associated with high arousal like excitement or anger can also speed up time perception, which might lead to underestimating how long tasks will take (Gable et al., 2022).

Decision making

Emotions can heavily influence how individuals make decisions, especially in time sensitive situations (Zakay, 2012). Negative emotions such as fear, anger, and sadness, might make someone feel like they have more time than they actually do, leading to rushed decisions or impulsive actions. On the other hand, when in a positive emotional state, people might underestimate how much time they need, potentially overlooking important details (Ma et al., 2021). Anxiety can warp time perception as well, making it feel like there’s never enough time to adequately assess risks and plan ahead (Ma et al., 2021).

Health and well-being

How people perceive time can have a significant impact on their overall well-being (Visalli et al., 2023). For instance, those dealing with depression often feel like time is dragging, which can deepen feelings of hopelessness. Similarly, distortions in time perception related to anxiety can trigger stronger stress responses (Ma et al., 2021).

Practical Applications of Time Perception in Daily Life

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Stress management

Understanding how time perception works can be a powerful tool for managing stress, especially in high-pressure moments. When being faced with deadlines or when tasks pile up, individuals may feel as though time is slipping away which can increase anxiety and reduce performance (Häfner & Stock, 2010). However, by using effective time management techniques, people can feel less rushed and overwhelmed (Häfner & Stock, 2010).

Mindfulness practices, like meditation or grounding exercises, can be helpful in regulating our sense of time during stressful moments. These techniques allow us to shift our focus away from worrying about the future and centre our attention on the present. Essentially, they help “slow down” time when everything feels chaotic (Sarigiannidis et.al., 2020). Simple strategies such as deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, or visualisation can stretch our perception of time, easing panic and enabling us to make better decisions (Gable et al., 2022).

Task management

Time perception is really important when it comes to productivity, especially in work and study settings. When people understand how they experience time, they can use specific strategies to improve their focus and efficiency (Osin & Boniwell, 2024). One effective method is the Pomodoro Technique, which involves working for about 25 minutes and then taking a short break (Santiago & Gurat, 2023). This approach helps make long tasks feel less overwhelming and keeps attention sharp (Santiago & Gurat, 2023).

By mixing periods of focused work with short breaks, individuals can maintain control over their time and avoid feeling rushed. This balance helps manage that pressure that often builds up during long, continuous work sessions (Osin & Boniwell, 2024). Breaking larger projects into smaller parts also helps shift the way time feels, making it easier to stay productive.

For long-term projects or tight deadlines, understanding how time works can help prevent procrastination. When tasks are broken down into smaller steps, they become more manageable, leading to better motivation and focus.

Individual Differences in Time Perception

Time perception isn't the same across all individuals. It varies significantly based on factors such as age, phycological[spelling?] disorders, and personality traits. These differences can shape how we experience certain life events and how we make decisions.

Age

As people age, their perception of time changes quite a bit. Many older adults often feel like time flies by faster as they get older[factual?]. This sensation may stem from a decrease in cognitive processing speed, meaning they take in fewer events within the same timeframe. Kids and younger adults, who are quicker at processing information, tend to feel like time moves more slowly, especially when they’re faced with new or unfamiliar experiences (Lockenhoff, 2013).

Life experiences and routines also shape how we perceive time. Adults typically engage in repetitive daily activities that creat[spelling?] less distinct memories which can lead to the feeling that time is flying by. Children however, are constantly encountering new experiences, which makes time feel longer because their brains are processing fresh experiences (Lockenhoff, 2013).

Circadian rhythm and biological factors

Circadian rhythm further influence how we perceive time at different points during the day. For example, many people experience slower time perception in the morning when their energy is lower, while in the afternoon or early evening, when alertness peaks, time may seem to pass more quickly. Biological clocks play a pivotal role in shaping these daily variations in time awareness (Fontes et.al., 2016).

Our circadian rhythms, the body’s natural 24-hour biological cycles, have a significant impact on how we perceive time. These rhythms influence our energy levels, mood, and attention throughout the day, ultimately impacting our sense of time’s passage (Fontes et.al., 2016).

Fatigue, particularly due to lack of sleep, can distort time perception. Tasks can feel like they drag on for longer because our cognitive performance dips and our ability to keep track of time diminishes. In contrast, being well-rested can tend to estimate time more accurately and can tackle tasks more efficiently (Fontes et.al., 2016).

Hormonal changes also play a role in how time is perceived. For instance, cortisol, the hormone released during stress, can speed up an individual's internal clock, making them feel like time is moving faster than it actually is. Melatonin, which helps regulate sleep, can slow down our sense of time during the evening, often making the day feel like it’s wrapping up more quickly (Fontes et.al., 2016).

Psychological disorders

People dealing with psychological disorders often have a unique experience when it comes to how they perceive time. For instance, those struggling with depression frequently feel as if time is dragging on. Days can feel endless, which only adds to their sense of hopelessness. The slow passage of time can intensify negative thoughts, making it even harder to find joy or motivation (Gable et al., 2022). On the other side, individuals with anxiety disorders often feel like they don’t have enough time, especially when faced with stressful situations. They might overestimate how long tasks will take, which can heighten their anxiety and make it difficult to concentrate (Gable et al., 2022). individuals with ADHD often struggle to accurately gauge time, leading to challenges in completing tasks or meeting deadlines (Cropper et.al., 2015).

Personality traits

Our personality traits play a big role in how we experience time in our daily lives. For instance, extroverts often feel like time flies by, which can lead them to underestimate how long things actually take. Their active engagement in social situations makes everything feel quicker and more exciting. On the other hand, introverts might have a more accurate sense of time, or they may feel like it drags on, especially in overwhelming social settings (Gable et al., 2022). Those with high levels of neuroticism often find their time perception warped during stressful moments, making time seem to stretch endlessly[factual?]. Impulsive individuals tend to jump into activities without thinking about how much time they’ll need, leading them to underestimate the duration of tasks[factual?]. Additionally, optimists generally perceive time as passing quickly, while pessimists may feel like it slows to a crawl during tough times (Gable et al., 2022). These personality traits highlight how our individual differences can significantly shape our experience of time.

Quiz

Conclusion

The way we perceive time is heavily related to our emotional experiences. Whether we're anxious about an upcoming exam or in a joyful moment, our emotions can stretch or compress the way that we perceive time. This understanding highlights the influence our feelings have on everyday life, from productivity to decision-making and overall well-being. By understading how stress, excitement, or boredom can distort our sense of time, we can better navigate high-pressure situations. For instance, mindfulness practices, like deep breathing or grounding exercises, can help us manage anxiety. Effective time management techniques, such as the Pomodoro Technique, can break tasks into manageable sections, making them feel less daunting. Ultimately, embracing the link between emotions and time perception helps us to approach challenges in better ways. By learning to regulate our emotional states, we can use time more effectively, enhancing our productivity and emotional well-being.

References

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Cropper, S., Johnston, A., & Groot, C. (2015). Individual differences in the perception of Time. Journal of Vision, 15(12), 813. https://doi.org/10.1167/15.12.813 Droit-Volet, S., & Gil, S. (2009). The time–emotion paradox. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1525), 1943–1953. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0013

Fontes, R., Ribeiro, J., Gupta, D. S., Machado, D., Lopes-Júnior, F., Magalhães, F., Bastos, V. H., Rocha, K., Marinho, V., Lima, G., Velasques, B., Ribeiro, P., Orsini, M., Pessoa, B., Araujo Leite, M. A., & Teixeira, S. (2016). Time perception mechanisms at central nervous system. Neurology International, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.4081/ni.2016.5939

Gable, P. A., Wilhelm, A. L., & Poole, B. D. (2022). How does emotion influence time perception? A review of evidence linking emotional motivation and time processing. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.848154

Häfner, A., & Stock, A. (2010). Time management training and perceived control of time at work. The Journal of Psychology, 144(5), 429–447. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2010.496647

Lockenhoff, C. E. (2011). Age, time, and decision making: From processing speed to global time horizons. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1235(1), 44–56. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06209.x

Ma, J., Lu, J., & Li, X. (2021). The influence of emotional awareness on time perception: Evidence from event-related potentials. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.704510

McRobbie, L. R. (2023, July 17). Off the clock: How our perception of time can affect productivity. Strategy+Business. https://www.strategy-business.com/blog/Off-the-clock-How-our-perception-of-time-can-affect-productivity

Moreira, D., & Barbosa, F. (2024). Behavioral evidence of emotional influence on time perception. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202404.0984.v1

Osin, E., & Boniwell, I. (2024). Positive time use: A missing link between time perspective, time management, and well-being. Frontiers in Psychology, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1087932

Santiago, C., & Gurat, M. (2023). Effect of Pomodoro technique on student Mendelian genetics concept mastery during synchronous remote learning. International Research Journal of Management, IT and Social Sciences, 10(4), 233–243. https://doi.org/10.21744/irjmis.v10n4.2287

Sarigiannidis, I., Grillon, C., Ernst, M., Roiser, J. P., & Robinson, O. J. (2020). Anxiety makes time pass quicker while fear has no effect. Cognition, 197, 104116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104116

Visalli, A., Begliomini, C., & Mioni, G. (2023). The effect of emotion intensity on time perception: A study with transcranial random noise stimulation. Experimental Brain Research, 241(8), 2179–2190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-023-06668-9

Watt, J. D. (1991). Effect of boredom proneness on time perception. Psychological Reports, 69(1), 323–327. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1991.69.1.323

Zakay, D. (2012, August 16). Experiencing time in daily life. BPS. https://www.bps.org.uk/psychologist/experiencing-time-daily-life

Zakay, D., & Block, R. A. (1995). An attentional-gate model of prospective time estimation. Time and the dynamic control of behavior, 5, 167–178.

External links

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circadian_rhythm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortisol

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