Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Ego development and psychological growth

Ego development and psychological growth:
How does ego development theory explain psychological growth?

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Overview

Figure 1. The complex interplay between ego and growth Case study: Think back to the last time you experienced a difficult life event or a major stressor. Was it a bereavement? Was it a wedding? It could even be that work promotion you were gunning so hard for but eventually missed out on. Now consider how you responded to the experience. Was your response constructive or maladaptive? In the long-run, did you grow as an individual or did you stagnate? Whether or not your response was positive or negative, these experiences are deeply connected to our ego development and psychological growth, as well as our emotional well-being.

The contribution of ego development theory to psychological growth persists as a subject of considerable interest and contention within the field of developmental psychology, with it being postulated that while the two concepts are inextricably linked, we are yet to fully conceptualise and articulate the many facets of their relationship (Hauser, 1993) (See Figure 1).

Among developmental psychologists, it is believed that Loevinger's ego development approach and Erikson's psychosocial development theory dovetail through the shared premise that ego is a schema which enables people to establish meaning and develop higher levels of functioning with an expanded worldview and greater empathy (Daniels et al., 2018).

There are an array of extant theoretical models and moderators which explore the relationship between ego development theory and psychological growth. The relationship between the two concepts permeates the field of developmental psychology. The explanation for this is that ego development theory is concerned with the continuum of differentiated perceptions of one's self, of the social world, and the relations of one's feelings and thoughts to those of others' (Hauser, 1993; Candee, 1974), while psychological growth refers to the transformative and systemic process of actively learning and adapting in response to major stressors and crises (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004; Ungar, 2018).

This chapter examines the key role played by ego development theory in explaining psychological growth with a specific focus on their implications towards emotional well-being. By illustrating how and why our ego development influences our psychological growth and consequently elicits emotional responses, this chapter provides important insight into how we can better understand and improve our emotional lives through the use of psychological science. Embracing psychological science while addressing the role of ego development theory in explaining psychological growth enhances understanding of the causes and consequences of emotional well-being, while also inspiring effective intervention strategies which promote emotional well-being as a fundamental component of healthy human functioning (Park et al., 2022).

Focus questions: What is ego development theory? What is psychological growth? How are ego development theory and psychological growth related? How do ego development theory and psychological growth impact emotion? How can the current research on ego development theory and psychological growth be applied?

What is ego development theory?

Background

Originally theorised by Loevinger (1987), ego development theory postulates the ego to be a holistic construct representing the fundamental structural unity of personality organisation. The ego is widely assumed to encompass both our integrative processes in dealing with diverse intrapersonal and interpersonal experiences, as well as the consequent frame of reference that is subjectively imposed on those life experiences to create meaning (Manners & Durkin, 2001, p. 542). With this definition in mind, it must be noted that Loevinger's (1987) conceptualisation of ego development theory is heavily rooted in the view that ego is the 'master trait', ultimately prevailing as the dominant developmental and personality construct that influences our responses to all intrapersonal and interpersonal experiences (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. A fully developed adult brain

The pillars of ego development theory

The four main facets of the ego in which Loevinger (1997) later established as determining the distinctive construct of one's ego are character development, conscious preoccupations, interpersonal style and cognitive style. Together, these facets form the backbone of ego development theory. Character development represents impulse control and moral development, conscious preoccupations account for an individual's conscious thoughts and behaviour, interpersonal style represents one's holistic perception of interpersonal relationships, while cognitive style accounts for conceptual complexity and cognitive development (Manners & Durkin, 2001).

The stages of ego development

With accordance to Loevinger's (1987) original model of ego development theory, the stages of ego development are as follows; pre-social (E1), impulsive (E2), self-protective (E3), conformist (E4), self-aware (E5), conscientious (E6), individualistic (E7), autonomous (E8), integrated (E9) and flowing (E10), which is a potential tenth stage by some international measures (see Table 1).

Table 1. Loevinger's stages of ego development

Stage	Description
1. Pre-social (E1)	Babies and young infants with little means of interpersonal/intrapersonal projection and communication
2. Impulsive (E2)	Young child's impulsivity to 'assert his growing sense of self' and view experiences in extremes
3. Self-protective (E3)	Child begins to establish 'self control of impulses' but with a 'self-protective' egocentric nature
4. Conformist (E4)	Adolescent accepts social norms and values; identity and fear of rejection
5. Self-aware (E5)	'Conscientious-conformist' phase experienced by young adults
6. Conscientious (E6)	Adult experiences full internalisation of rules, establish values and identify ambitions
7. Individualistic (E7)	Adult develops respect for their individual autonomy and the freedom of others
8. Autonomous (E8)	Adult reconciles with interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts
9. Integrated (E9)	Adult experiences complete acceptance of their individualism, fate and limitations
10. Flowing (E10)	Adult engages with the 'flow' of life but ceases to evaluate interpersonal and intrapersonal experiences

In layperson's terms, Loevinger's (1987) E1 stage describes the pre-social phase experienced by babies and young infants, where they have no real means of interpersonal or intrapersonal projection until they develop communication skills. The E2 stage refers to the phase of ego development in which a child's egocentric nature is defined by an impulsivity to 'assert his growing sense of self' through rash physical behaviour, as well as a tendency to view both interpersonal and intrapersonal experiences in extremes (e.g. good vs. bad) (Loevinger, 1997). The E3 stage describes the beginning of a child's path to establishing 'self-control of impulses', yet is characterised by a 'self-protective' egocentric nature that grasps the concept of blame but ultimately prevents them from accepting responsibility for their interpersonal and intrapersonal experiences (Loevinger, 1987). The conformist (E4) stage refers to the phase in which individuals (usually school-aged) begin to embrace socially accepted norms and values, often resulting in a shared sense of identity and a fear of social rejection (Witherell & Erickson, 1978). The self-aware (E5) stage describes the 'conscientious-conformist' level of ego development where individuals (usually fully developed young adults) typically experience increased self-awareness and more complex interpersonal relationships, yet haven't reached the stage of full conscientiousness (Loevinger, 1997). The conscientious (E6) stage is the level characterised by a full internalisation of rules, consolidation of personal values and a deeper understanding of personal ambitions that is usually experienced by middle-aged adults (Loevinger, 1987). The individualistic (E7) stage (reached only by fully matured adults) describes the level of ego development in which a person experiences a high degree of tolerance and respect for their individual autonomy and that of others (Loevinger, 1987). The autonomous (E8) stage refers to the level in which mature adults may transcend the boundaries individualistic egoism and 'synthesise' (Loevinger, 1987) in a way that enables them to effectively reconcile with interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts. The integrated (E9) stage is the final level of ego development originally theorised by Loevinger (1987), which postulates that an exceptionally developed individual may eventually achieve complete acceptance of their individualism, fate and limitations. Finally, the flowing (E10) stage is a possible tenth level of ego development theory that has since been conceptualised by Finckler (2017) and asserts that an individual may completely cease to evaluate their interpersonal and intrapersonal experiences while still engaging with the 'flow' of life.

What is psychological growth?

Background

Across the discipline of developmental psychology, psychological growth is considered to be a systemic process of actively learning and adapting to new ways of constructively functioning following a crisis, with this transformative psychological response being attributed to the need for individuals to accommodate major stressors (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004; Ungar, 2018). The depiction of psychological growth as the product of a continuum of interrelated human experiences has made an immense impact on the framework and direction of research in developmental psychology and consequently, aspects of personality psychology.

Theoretical framework

The theoretical basis of psychological growth is heavily grounded in Erikson's (1968) stages of psychosocial development; a theory first conceptualised by the psychoanalyst and developmental psychologist Erik Erikson which draws from Freud's theory of psychosexual development to assert that social dynamics and psychosocial development play an integral role in the psychological growth of an individual from infancy to adulthood (Carrey, 2010). Psychosocial development theory is widely considered to provide a solid foundation for the study of psychological growth across the life-span, as it contrasts other theoretical approaches which are limited in scope by addressing how educational, social and interpersonal experiences shape an individual's psychological growth from birth to death (Maree, 2021). By establishing a theoretical framework that transcends a narrow focus on infant, adolescent or adult development, psychosocial development theory offers considerable utility as a paradigm that can be applied to a variety of research fields and conditions.

Epigenetics and the stages of psychosocial development

The core principle of psychosocial development theory is the concept of 'epigenetics'; the notion that there are eight stages of human development which occur throughout the life-span, ultimately shaping an individual's personality and their psychological growth (Maree, 2021; Erikson, 1968). Erikson's (1968) eight stages of 'epigenetics' are as follows; Trust vs. Mistrust (infancy, 1-2 years), Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (early childhood, 2-4 years), Initiative vs. Guilt (pre-school age, 4-5 years), Industry vs. Inferiority (school age, 5-12 years), Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence, 13-19 years), Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood, 20-40 years), Generativity vs. Stagnation (adulthood, 40-65 years) and Ego Integrity vs. Despair (maturity, 65+) (see Table 2).

Table 2. Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

Stage	Description
1. Trust vs. Mistrust	Infants move towards trust or mistrust depending on if their needs are met
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt	Young children begin to establish sense of self and personal control
3. Initiative vs. Guilt	Children begin completing tasks individually and establish a sense of autonomy
4. Industry vs. Inferiority	Children move towards industry or inferiority depending on their ability to develop competency
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion	Adolescents strive to gain further autonomy and social integration
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation	Young adults seek intimate and trusting relationships; vulnerability
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation	Adults reconcile their personal ambitions with the needs of others
8. Ego integrity vs. Despair	Mature adults come to terms with their mortality and life experiences

Once fused together, the eight stages of psychosocial development are finally seen as a continuum of reactions to interpersonal and intrapersonal experiences over the human life-span. Each stage represents a dichotomy in human response; the prospect of flourishing vs. 'identity crisis'. 'Identity crisis' is the term coined by Erikson (1968) to describe the continuum of conflicts that occur throughout the life-span and the potential for these conflicts to induce feelings of confusion and insecurity. The efficacy of psychosocial development theory in representing psychological growth is ultimately evident through its indication that one must respond constructively to crises and stressors if they are to reach a state of interpersonal and intrapersonal 'flourishing'.

The intersection: ego development theory, psychological growth and emotion

Relationship between ego development theory and psychological growth

Across the realm of developmental psychology, ego development and psychological growth are considered to be inextricably linked despite the many facets of their relationship having not yet been fully conceptualised and articulated (Hauser, 1993). It is widely accepted that ego development theory plays a key role in explaining psychological growth, as the effects of one's positive and negative egocentric experiences have been observed to contribute heavily to the trajectory of one's eudaemonic vs. hedonic psychological growth (Bauer & McAdams, 2010). This notion is consistent with the view that Loevinger's ego development approach and Erikson's psychosocial development theory dovetail through their shared premise that ego is a schema which enables people to establish meaning and develop higher levels of functioning with an expanded worldview and greater empathy (Daniels et al., 2018). It can therefore be deduced that throughout each of Loevinger's (1987) ego development stages, the product of an individual's interpersonal and intrapersonal experiences will permeate Erikson's (1968) eight stages of psychosocial development throughout the life-span. The interaction of character development, conscious preoccupations, interpersonal style and cognitive style (Loevinger, 1997) with the eight dimensions of 'epigenetics' consequently creates a framework in which individuals apply their subjective egocentric experiences to their ultimate pursuit for constructive psychological growth.

Effects on emotion

The contribution of ego development theory to psychological growth culminates with an array of implications for human emotion at the various stages of the life-span. Their effects on emotion can be explored in the context of 'flourishing', with the notion of a 'quiet ego' contributing to long term psychological growth, reduced stress, fulfilment and general emotional well-being (Bauer & Weatherbie, 2023). From an alternative lens, the relationship between ego development theory and psychological growth offers considerable insight within the field of psychopathology. It is postulated that a strong foundation of character development, conscious preoccupations, interpersonal style and cognitive style combined with a positive epigenetic trajectory may be a protective factor against the development of severe psychological disorders such as schizophrenia, depression and personality disorders (Kalpokienė, 2005). Such a protective factor plays a valuable role in the prevention of 'identity crisis' and promotes emotional responses conducive to psychological well-being such as pleasure, relaxation and a sense of security (i.e. flourishing). In contrast, the failure to achieve a constructive synchronisation between ego development and psychological growth may elicit maladaptive emotional responses such as stress, fatigue and fear; culminating in the risk of 'identity crisis'.

Research applications

The relationship between ego development theory and psychological growth remains relatively ill-defined within the current pool of research and gaps remain within the literature which prevent the full conceptualisation and articulation of the nature and extent of their relationship (Hauser, 1993). While research models that incorporate principles of ego development theory and psychological growth such as the study of value systems and their contribution to adolescent ego development demonstrate considerable efficacy as a tool for informing educators and policy-makers, they are limited by a lack of cross-cultural generalisability (Kjellström et al., 2017). If future research on ego development theory and psychological growth were to move in a direction concerned with accounting for the nuances in cross-cultural customs, beliefs and value systems, positive outcomes relating to psychological well-being may be attained for a broader range of demographics.

Additionally, the current pool of research boasts a variety of empirically progressive frameworks that bridge the gap between social cognitive accounts of the adolescent self and psychodynamic accounts of the adolescent ego (Lapsley, 1993). Despite this strength, there remains a critical demand for further research which integrates the dimensions of ego development theory and psychological growth in a way that contrasts the effects of eudaemonic vs. hedonic growth across the life-span. By better articulating and conceptualising these effects, there will be a greater selection of empirically supported research available to health professionals and educators that may be used to inform the general public of the relationship between their ego development, psychological growth and emotional well-being.

Conclusion

Ego development theory is understood to explain psychological growth due to the considerable effect of one's positive and negative egocentric experiences on the trajectory of their eudaemonic vs. hedonic psychological growth (Bauer & McAdams, 2010). Through this lens, Loevinger's ego development approach and Erikson's psychosocial development theory recognise ego development and psychological growth to be key moderators in establishing meaning and developing higher levels of functioning with an expanded worldview and greater empathy (Daniels et al., 2018). Originally theorised by Loevinger (1987), ego development theory posits ego to be a holistic construct representing the fundamental structural unity of personality organisation. The theory holds that character development, conscious preoccupations, interpersonal style and cognitive style are the four defining facets of the ego (Loevinger, 1997), as well as outlining a comprehensive range of ego development stages (Loevinger, 1987). Psychological growth is defined as the transformative, systemic process of actively learning and adapting to new ways of constructively functioning following crises and major stressors (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004; Ungar, 2018). Psychological growth is grounded in Erikson's (1968) psychosocial development theory; a theory that explores the role of 'epigenetics' and eight stages of psychosocial development in determining the growth of an individual across the life-span (Carrey, 2010).

Take-home message

In the spirit of exploring how we can better understand and improve our emotional lives through the use of psychological science, the key take-home message of this chapter is that the interplay between ego development theory and psychological growth has a considerable effect on human emotion. This effect includes the notion that a 'quiet' or balanced ego contributes to long term psychological growth, reduced stress, fulfilment and general emotional well-being (i.e. flourishing) (Bauer & Weatherbie, 2023). A further emotional effect is that constructive ego development and psychological growth can be a protective factor against the development of severe psychological disorders such as schizophrenia, depression and personality disorders (Kalpokienė, 2005), thus promoting psychological well-being. Despite limitations to the current research such as a lack of cross-cultural generalisability and articulation of the effects of ego development theory and psychological growth on eudaemonic vs. hedonic growth across the life-span, we can strive to better understand and improve our emotional lives by continuing to learn from the relationship between ego development theory and psychological growth.

See also

• Emotion and perception (Book chapter, 2017)
• Loevinger's stages of ego development (Wikipedia)
• Ageing and emotion (Book chapter, 2014)
• Erikson's stages of psychosocial development (Wikipedia)

References

Bauer, J. J., & McAdams, D. P. (2010). Eudaimonic growth: Narrative growth goals predict increases in ego development and subjective well-being 3 years later. Developmental Psychology, 46(4), 761–772. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019654

Bauer, J. J., & Weatherbie, K. J. (2023). The quiet ego and human flourishing. Journal of Happiness Studies, 24(8), 2499–2530. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-023-00689-5

Carrey, N. (2010). The two Ericksons: Forgotten concepts and what constitutes an appropriate professional knowledge base in psychiatry. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 19(4), 248–248.

Daniels, D., Saracino, T., Fraley, M., Christian, J., & Pardo, S. (2018). Advancing ego development in adulthood through study of the enneagram system of personality. Journal of Adult Development, 25(4), 229–241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-018-9289-x

Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: youth and crisis. Norton & Co. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1968-35041-000

Finckler, P. (2017). Transformationale führung. In Springer eBooks. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-50292-1

Hauser, S. T. (1993). Loevinger’s model and leasure of ego development: A critical review, II. Psychological Inquiry, 4(1), 23–30. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0401_4

Kalpokienė, V. (2005). An attitude of ego psychology towards development and mental disorders of adolescents. Psichologija, 31, 75–85. https://doi.org/10.15388/psichol.2005..4337

Kjellström, S., Sjölander, P., Almers, E., & Mccall, M. E. (2017). Value systems among adolescents: Novel method for assessing level of ego‐development. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 58(2), 150–157. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12356

Lapsley, D. K. (1993). Toward an integrated theory of adolescent ego development: The “new look” at adolescent egocentrism. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 63(4), 562–571. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0079470

Loevinger, J. (1987). Paradigms of personality. W H Freeman/Times Books/ Henry Holt & Co. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1987-97395-000

Loevinger, J. (1997). Stages of personality development. In Elsevier eBooks (pp. 199–208). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012134645-4/50009-3

Manners, J., & Durkin, K. (2001). A critical review of the validity of ego development theory and its measurement. Journal of Personality Assessment, 77(3), 541–567. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa7703_12

Maree, J. G. (2021). The psychosocial development theory of Erik Erikson: critical overview. Early Child Development and Care, 191(7–8), 1107–1121. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2020.1845163

Park, C. L., Kubzansky, L. D., Chafouleas, S. M., Davidson, R. J., Keltner, D., Parsafar, P., Conwell, Y., Martin, M. Y., Hanmer, J., & Wang, K. H. (2022). Emotional well-being: What it is and why it matters. Affective Science, 4(1), 10–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00163-0

Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2004). Target article: “Post-traumatic growth: Conceptual foundations and empirical evidence.” Psychological Inquiry, 15(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1501_01

Witherell, C. S., & Erickson, V. L. (1978). Teacher education as adult development. Theory Into Practice, 17(3), 229–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405847809542771

External links

• The stages of ego development according to Jane Loevinger (American Institute for Learning and Human Development)
• Psychological development (Britannica)
• The psychology behind growth and development (Psychologs)
• The importance of understanding ego: a guide to personal growth (Medium)
• The significance of ego development in psychology (Psychology Fanatic)