Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Autism and motivation

Autism and motivation :
How does autism influence motivation?

Please note: Research in this area is limited, focusing more on specific aspects of motivation in autism, and reliable alternative links are provided when Wikipedia pages are unavailable.

Overview

Scenario

Imagine you're an autistic student faced with a mountain of assignments. You feel intensely drawn to a particular topic, pouring all your time and energy into it, yet struggle to even begin the tasks that don’t interest you. The pressure builds, but instead of motivating you, it overwhelms you, leading to avoidance and burnout. This causes you to leave everything to the last minute and eventually suffer bad grades.

This scenario shows how autism uniquely influences motivation, highlighting the challenges autistic individuals face in daily life and academics. This chapter explores these factors, examining why motivation is influenced differently in autism and why understanding this is important for tailored support strategies.

Focus questions

How do different factors/theories of autism influence motivation?
Are autistic individuals more likely to be intrinsically, or extrinsically motivated? How do special interests influence this?
How does focusing too deeply on one thing help, or hurt, motivation?

What is autism?

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) or autism (formally known as Asperger's Disorder, which was removed from the DSM and replaced by ASD in 2013), is a neurodevelopmental condition characterised by difficulties in social communication, restricted interests, and repetitive behaviours. It falls under the broader concept of neurodiversity, which recognises variations in brain function (including autism), as natural and valuable aspects of human diversity. The DSM-5 classifies autism under a single diagnosis of ASD, encompassing earlier distinctions like Asperger’s disorder and pervasive developmental disorder. Identity-first language [1][2], eg. 'autistic individual' instead of 'individual with autism', is an important aspect of self advocacy and important to know when refering to these groups (the use of 'ASD' will be used when talking more specifically about the diagnosis).

ASD is a spectrum, meaning symptoms and their severity can vary widely—from individuals who are nonverbal to, say, those with proficient language skills. Savant Syndrome refers to individuals, often with autism or other neurodevelopmental conditions, who display exceptional abilities like a photographic memory. The terms 'high-functioning' and 'low-functioning' to describe ones ability are outdated and offensive, now replaced by levels of required support (see Figure 2). Common characteristics in autism include challenges in communication, sensory sensitivities, repetitive behaviours, intense/special interests and difficulty with social interaction e.g. avoiding eye contact (Kylliäinen et al., 2012). Stimming, or self-stimulatory behaviour, is another characteristic of autism, and often a way for autistic individuals to manage sensory input and emotions. While ASD is primarily genetic, environmental factors may also contribute to its development, but the cause of ASD onset is still ultimately unknown and currently being researched.

Research has historically been shaped by normative standards that largely reflect the experiences of young, Eurocentric males, reinforced by theories like the Extreme Male Brain Theory (Baron-Cohen, 1999, 2002). This narrow focus has resulted in a limited understanding of how autism manifests in adults, girls, and women, contributing to delayed or missed diagnoses in these groups. Diagnosing ASD involves assessing two domains: A (social communication and interaction) and B (restricted or repetitive behaviors and interests, such as repetitive actions, a strong need for routine, or intense focus on specific activities). A formal diagnosis requires a professional evaluation of these criteria and their impact on daily life.

Despite historical misunderstandings and biases, the neurodiversity movement advocates for the acceptance and accommodation of autistic individuals, emphasising their strengths and contributions to human diversity. Autism is frequently comorbid with other conditions like ADHD and various personality disorders and share similar phenotypes (see Figure 3), further complicating the diagnostic process. This overlap of traits can make it challenging to distinguish between ASD and other diagnoses, often exacerbating difficulties as individuals age and increasing the complexity of effective intervention and treatment. This highlights the multifaceted nature of neurodiversity and the need for nuanced approaches to support.


Case study - Jamie
Meet Jamie, a 20-year-old psychology student passionate about abnormal psychology. They spend hours studying topics like schizophrenia and dissociative identity disorder, impressing both classmates and professors. However, group projects are stressful for Jamie. Social motivation is a struggle, and they often feel out of place, preferring to work alone. This sometimes causes friction and affects their grades in collaborative assignments. Jamie also faces executive function challenges. While highly motivated in their favorite subjects, they often lose track of time and miss deadlines for less interesting assignments, leading to inconsistent performance and added stress.

How well do you understand Jamie's situation?

Jamie’s Problem: Jamie’s experience shows the challenge of balancing a deep passion for abnormal psychology with the demands of university life. Their special interest drives success in certain areas, but struggles with social motivation and executive function create obstacles. This highlights the need for strategies to help students like Jamie manage university life while staying engaged with their passions.

Overview of motivation

Motivation is a psychological construct that refers to the processes/reasons that drive goal-directed behaviour. In psychology, it is often divided into intrinsic and extrinsic motivation:

Intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation comes from internal rewards, such as personal satisfaction or interest in the task itself. In autism, this is a really effective form of motivation and often relates to deep engagement with special interests, which can be a strong motivator for learning and growth.

"I just love engaging in the activity, because I find it interesting and enjoyable!"

Extrinsic motivation

Ultimately based off-of B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning (positive/negative reward/punisher), extrinsic motivation is driven by external rewards or punishments, where environmental factors push you to engage in a behaviour, to gain something or avoid a negative outcome. For autistic individuals, social rewards like praise may be less effective, and clear, tangible outcomes might be more motivating. Positive reinforcement and non-social rewards may be a more effective use of extrinsic motivation in autistic individuals.

"I am doing this activity, in order to get/avoid that"

Motivation is shaped by both internal desires and external pressures, driving us to pursue goals or avoid negative consequences. In the context of autism, these motivational processes may be influenced by unique neurological, sensory, and cognitive factors, which can impact how individuals approach tasks, set goals, and respond to different situations. Understanding these factors is key to supporting motivation in autistic individuals.

The social motivation hypothesis

When it specifically comes to motivation in autistic individuals, the Social Motivation Hypothesis (SMH) posits that autistic individuals show less interest in social stimuli, such as faces and eye contact, which limits opportunities for social learning and skill development (Clements et al., 2018). First introduced by Coralie Chevallier and colleagues in 2012, the SMH suggests that these early deficits in social motivation lead to broader social difficulties, building on theories like Theory of Mind (ToM). Jaswal and Akhtar (2018) add that behaviors often seen in autism, like reduced eye contact, may be misinterpreted as a lack of interest, when in reality they reflect different motivations or responses. They advocate for a more humane and accurate understanding of these behaviors. Supporting this, a study by Marrus et al. (2022) found that lower social motivation is strongly linked to a higher likelihood of an autism diagnosis. This highlights the need to focus on motivation when developing social support strategies for autistic individuals.

Factors of autism that influence motivation

Executive dysfunction

Executive dysfunction, or a struggle/deficit in executive function, refers to difficulties in managing thoughts, emotions, and actions, particularly with tasks that involve working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control. Executive function, a term first developed by Pribram (1973), is important for organising and planning, shifting focus, and maintaining self-control.

Executive function, encompassing skills like working memory, impulse control, and mental flexibility; which are often impaired in autistic individuals and other neurodevelopmental disorders linked to frontal lobe deficits (Hill, 2003). Rabinovici et al. (2015) identify four key components of executive function: working memory, inhibition, set shifting, and fluency. Dysfunction in these areas may stem from damage to the prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. Understanding these impairments is crucial for developing effective interventions and strategies to support individuals in both educational and daily life settings.

In autistic individuals, executive dysfunction can make it hard to start tasks, stay focused, and adapt to changes, affecting motivation. This lack of control can lead to anxiety, especially with tasks lacking immediate rewards, while planning and flexibility issues further hinder motivation. Despite strengths in memory and attention to detail, struggles with task initiation can block sustained motivation. Accommodations like breaking tasks into smaller steps, visual aids, and flexible pacing can ease cognitive overload and improve task completion (Ozonoff & Schetter, 2011). For some, these challenges are intensified by extreme avoidance, known as Pathological Demand Avoidance (PDA).

Pathological Demand Avoidance (PDA)

Pathological Demand Avoidance (PDA) describes a profile within Autism Spectrum Disorder where individuals exhibit an extreme need to avoid everyday demands. This avoidance often stems from a desire to maintain autonomy and control, leading to heightened anxiety and emotional responses. The autism community also sometimes refer to PDA as 'Pervasive Drive for Autonomy' a term coined by Tomlin Wilding, believing it fits better to the meaning of the concept. PDA was first investigated as a distinct disorder by Elizabeth Newson about 50 years ago, and then made a separate syndrome to ASD by Newson (2003). PDA is characterised by an extreme anxiety-driven need for control, distinguishing it from typical autism deficits like social communication difficulties. O’Nions et al. (2017) explore triggers like anxiety, sensory sensitivities, and phobias, providing insight into what drives extreme behaviours in PDA. These factors, alongside the intense need for autonomy, can negatively influence motivation in individuals with PDA, as the mere presence of a demand (whether external or internal) can trigger avoidance behaviours, preventing them from starting or completing tasks.

People with PDA may avoid tasks, even ones they want to do, due to anxiety and a need for control. This avoidance stems from feeling overwhelmed, not a lack of motivation. For example, a student with PDA might avoid schoolwork they enjoy because it threatens their sense of autonomy. The sense of autonomy, combined with competence and relatedness, are the three basic needs for motivation, further highlighting the impact PDA can have on ASD motivation. Creating low-pressure environments with flexible options can help reduce this anxiety. However, Moore (2020) cautions against fully accepting PDA as a diagnosis, suggesting it may pathologize autistic children's resistance to demands. A systematic review on PDA by Kildahl et al. (2021) highlights some methodological limitations of research of PDA such as problems concerning definition, construct validity and measurement, and whether it constitutes a distinct disorder or subtype within autism. Kildahl and colleagues go on to outline the need for further research on PDA to be done in order to understand these issues, as well as its relationship with conditions like anxiety and trauma. Despite the limitations and concerns surrounding its classification, it is crucial to acknowledge PDA as a valid condition that significantly impacts motivation and daily functioning, as avoidance of demands may represent a coping strategy rather than a form of non-compliance (Egan et al., 2018). Necessitating a nuanced understanding of its unique challenges. PDA also relates to autistic inertia, where individuals struggle to start new tasks or transition between activities.

Autistic inertia

Autistic inertia is a common experience among autistic individuals, characterised by difficulties in initiating or transitioning between tasks. This phenomenon often feels like being stuck, where there is a desire to engage in an activity, but the ability to move forward is hindered. This phenomenon can be understood through the framework of Burnout, Inertia, Meltdown, and Shutdown (BIMS) (Phung et al., 2021), which explores how these interconnected experiences affect the emotional, cognitive, and physical well-being of autistic individuals.

Factors contributing to inertia include challenges with executive functioning, perfectionism, and environmental pressures. Autistic individuals may also experience anxiety, fatigue, or overwhelm, which can worsen inertia. Buckle et al. (2021) highlight the complexity of inertia, involving physical, emotional, and cognitive factors, stressing that it goes beyond motor skills or executive functioning. Understanding these nuances can improve support strategies, emphasizing compassion and collaboration from caregivers. Buckle et al. (2021) also found that some autistic individuals view inertia positively when deeply focused on a task, leading to a productive state of 'inertial motion.' This focus, often seen negatively, can resemble the 'flow state,' which will be explored later.

**Stop! Lets see if we can understand these 3 similar concepts a bit better with a table:**
Aspect	Executive Dysfunction	Pathological Demand Avoidance (PDA)	Autistic Inertia
Definition	- difficulty managing thoughts, emotions, planning, and organisation - Instead of struggling with starting and switching tasks (inertia), it uniquely involves challenges in focusing on, or transitioning between tasks.	- A profile within ASD, marked by an extreme need to avoid everyday demands due to anxiety to maintain autonomy and control.	- Difficulty with initiating tasks and maintaining engagement. - Motivation is there but tasks can be overwhelmingly daunting, often leading to a feeling of being "stuck."
Key features	- Impaired impulse control, flexibility, and emotional regulation. - Difficulty planning and organising tasks. - Anxiety can exacerbate executive dysfunction.	- Extreme avoidance of everyday demands, even if appearing 'minor'. - High anxiety relating to the need for control and autonomy dominates behavior.	- Feelings of being "stuck" despite wanting to start a task and having trouble doing so. - Once started, difficulty shifting or stopping tasks. - Deep focus may resemble a “flow state”.
Presentation	- Procrastination, struggles with time management, and seeming disorganised. - Difficulty starting or switching between tasks. - Emotional regulation issues like impulsivity or frustration.	- Avoids tasks using a variety of strategies, such as distraction or negotiation. - May seem resistant, controlling or defiant to everyday requests.	- Appears passive, stuck or frozen before starting a task. - May hyper-focus but struggle to shift between activities. - May struggle to stop the activity
Motivational influence	- Individual struggles to initiate and maintain tasks, reducing motivation, especially for tasks requiring planning or delayed rewards. - Can struggle with motivation due to task overwhelm. - Difficulties with goal-directed behaviours due to problems with organisation and following-through	- The need to avoid demands can override motivation, even when the individual desires to complete a task. - Avoidance often serves as a coping mechanism rather than a lack of motivation.	- Motivation to engage exists, but issues with initiation and momentum hinder starting tasks. - The feeling of being stuck can further lower motivation.
Anxiety prominence	- Anxiety stems from struggles to organise thoughts and manage time effectively. - Anxiety can worsen executive dysfunction, making it harder to focus & stay on track.	- Highly linked to anxiety, particularly the feeling of being controlled or losing autonomy. - Demand avoidance is driven by anxiety, more than other concepts	- Anxiety may be present, especially when feeling overwhelmed. - Despite this, inertia is not primarily driven by anxiety. It's more of a lack on energy to 'activate' so to speak

Monotropism

Monotropism (Morris et al., 2022) is a theory of autism that offers a non-pathologising perspective on the autistic experience. First developed by autistic individuals Dinah Murray, Wenn Lawson and Mike Lesser in the 1990s, and first published in 2005 (Murray et al., 2005), it seeks to explain many autistic traits through the lens of attention and focus. Fergus Murray, Dinah Murray's son, continues to share and expand upon their work through the website Monotropism.org. The theory suggests that autistic people tend to focus intensely on a smaller number of interests at any given time, leaving fewer mental resources for other tasks. In terms of motivation, this means that when engaged in areas of deep interest, autistic individuals often exhibit strong motivation. However, tasks outside these focused interests may feel overwhelming or unappealing, making it harder to shift attention or find motivation. This focus also connects to The intense world hypothesis of autism, where individuals become hyper-attuned to specific stimuli and are easily overwhelmed by sensory input. Additionally, monotropism can amplify anxiety when tasks demand attention shifting or multitasking, reinforcing the importance of meaningful, singular interests in motivating autistic people.

Special interests

Special interests are one of the definitive features of autism, and are deep, focused passions that often drive individuals to immerse themselves in a particular subject or activity for extended periods (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2001). Similar to a hyperfixation (short-term interests in a subject lasting from days to months, often seen in people with ASD/ADHD but can happen to anyone), but lasting a much longer time. These interests are fueled by intrinsic motivation, that is, autistic people often pursue them for the pure joy of learning or engagement of their interest. This internal drive allows autistic individuals to develop exceptional expertise and excel in their special interests far beyond the level of a neurotypical person with, say, a more casual hobby. These interests can serve as a powerful source of motivation, enhancing learning, focus, and even daily functioning by providing a sense of purpose and fulfillment. When fully engaged in a special interest, many autistic individuals may enter a flow state, a mental state of complete absorption and focus, where time seems to slip away and performance reaches its peak.

Impact on daily life and academic + professional motivation

Daily life and routine motivation

Routines greatly benefit autistic individuals by providing structure and enhancing day-to-day motivation. Disruptions to these routines, and problems like sensory sensitivities, can significantly impact motivation and lead to setbacks. Establishing clear objectives and incorporating special interests (eg. a toothbrush decorated as your favourite character) can help improve motivation for completing daily activities.

Academic and professional motivation

Academic and professional settings can often feel overwhelming for autistic individuals, which may decrease motivation to complete tasks. To counter this, incorporating special interests and making environmental adjustments can create a more supportive atmosphere, ultimately enhancing motivation and engagement.

Practical implications and strategies to help motivation in autism

Structured environments with flexibility:

Predictable environments with clear visual supports, like schedules or task lists, are useful in reducing anxiety and helping autistic individuals stay engaged. Flexibility in task "choice, interspersal of maintenance tasks, and natural reinforcers during intervention, leads to improvements in core symptoms of autism and may possibly be effective in academic areas (Koegel et al., 2010)".

Sensory and emotional support:

Sensory needs should be prioritised by providing stimming breaks and sensory tools like fidget toys, particularly in things like meetings/exams or tasks requiring focus. Addressing these needs ensures emotional regulation and helps sustain motivation for longer, without overwhelming the individual.

Small steps, clear expectations, and goal setting:

Breaking down tasks into smaller, more manageable steps while offering clear, unambiguous instructions is crucial for reducing overwhelm, especially for those with executive function challenges. Setting achievable goals and recognising progress keeps motivation high and the path forward clear.

Positive reinforcement with feedback:

Constructive feedback, focusing on strengths and incremental progress, combined with positive reinforcement, helps maintain motivation. Recognising achievements, both small and large, should help encourage continuous efforts from ASD individuals in both academic and workplace settings.

Education and inclusivity:

It’s essential to educate the broader community about autism and other disabilities, to foster inclusivity and understanding. Raising awareness helps reduce stigma/misconceptions about autism, and ensures that autistic individuals receive the support they need to thrive in every environment.

Conclusion

In conclusion, autism profoundly influences motivation through a complex interplay of cognitive, emotional, and environmental factors. Autistic individuals often face unique challenges in initiating and sustaining motivation, largely due to difficulties with executive functioning, PDA, inertia, and a tendency toward intense focus on specific/special interests. The theories of monotropism and the intense world hypothesis illuminate how hyper-attunement to certain stimuli affects motivation across various settings. Understanding these dynamics reveals that motivation is not simply a matter of willpower; rather, it involves recognising the intricacies of the autistic experience.

However, the positive aspects of autism, such as utilising special interests, intrinsic motivation, and the flow state, in moderation, show how motivation can be fostered through leveraging these strengths. Autism influences motivation by affecting executive functioning and sensory processing, leading to unique challenges in initiating and sustaining motivation while also highlighting strengths such as special interests and hyper-focus that can enhance motivation in supportive environments. Implications and daily impacts highlight the importance of structured environments, leveraging special interests, and adopting strengths-based approaches to enhance motivation. Routines and structured environments enhance motivation by providing predictability and reducing anxiety, while strategies like breaking tasks into manageable steps, offering sensory support, and leveraging individual strengths are essential for promoting motivation.

By prioritising sensory and emotional support, caregivers and educators can create conditions that foster engagement and personal growth. Ultimately, fostering awareness and an inclusive understanding of autism, and its impact on motivation, paves the way for more effective support strategies. This approach not only benefits autistic individuals but also enriches the broader community, promoting a culture of understanding and collaboration that enhances everyone’s capacity for motivation and growth.

References

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External links

ActuallyAutisticWiki (a wiki made by, and for, autistic individuals)
Autistic inertia (kiddclinic.com.au)
How do we describe autism (aspect.org.au)
Identity-First Language (autisticadvocacynetwork.org)
I'm Autistic, Now What? (YouTube channel covering lots of concepts in this chapter)
Monotropism (monotropism.org)
Monotropism, learning and flow state (reframingautism.org.au)
Motivation and autism (theplaceforchildrenwithautism.com)
Social Motivation Hypothesis (ncbi.nlm.nih.gov)
The intense world hypothesis of autism (thetransmitter.org)
Theories of autism (thetransmitter.org)
Theories of Motivation (structural-learning.com)
What is autism? (thespectrum.org.au)

	How to avoid group projects
	The need for strategies to balance interests and university demands
	Benefits of focusing solely on one subject
	The ease of handling all academic tasks