Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Body functionality and body satisfaction

Body functionality and body satisfaction:
What is the relationship between body functionality and body satisfaction?

Multimedia presentation (3 min)

Overview

Case study Figure 1: ideal body image for men in the media Welcome Jamie, an adult in his late 30s surviving today's world that is constantly subjected to the traditional ideals of beauty portrayed in commercials, TV, and social media. Jamie's acute back discomfort made it hard to get up and walk about regularly, making everyday activities harder. The desire to conform to idealised views of one's body on the internet prompted a significant decrease in body confidence, which had a negative impact on self-worth and psychological well-being.

In today’s society, social media, TV shows, and billboards show us what the ideal body is. When scrolling through our social media, we see people with “the perfect body,” and how we think we are meant to look. We sometimes question the reality of these images, and other times we are influenced to change our appearances. The complicated link between body functionality and body satisfaction comes as a fascinating topic of research in a society that is influenced by different views of beauty standards and wellness. This chapter addresses the basic theories of psychology, interpersonal relationships, and evidence that support the theory of how the inner functioning of our bodies determines our sense of self-worth, mental health, and overall standard of life.

Body functionality involves every component of the body's general wellness, including sense of smell, fitness, movement, and psychological well-being. A good state of health is necessary for emotional as well as physical recovery. From easy tasks to difficult tasks, body functionality is essential for everyday living, impacting general efficiency and productivity. Body satisfaction describes someone's comfort with and willingness to embrace their physical attributes and image of themselves. Body satisfaction can often be determined by beauty norms in society and mainstream depictions, which may result in worries regarding a person's appearance, specifically when someone thinks that they do not match up to these expectations.

Focus Questions What is body functionality and body satisfaction? What psychological theories help us understanding body functionality and their role in understanding body satisfaction? In what way does social media and societal norms affect body satisfaction?

Body functionality and body satisfaction

A person's general functioning, ability to perform their everyday tasks, and quality of life are greatly affected by the interaction between their body's operation, which includes mobility, health, fitness, psychological state, and sensations, and their body satisfaction, which includes their physique, appearance, and sense of self-worth. A well-functioning body and a favourable view of one's body can also lead to improved well-being, both physically and mentally. According to Alleva and Tylka, body functionality involves the overall well-being of the body, and the body's ability to walk, stretch, heal from the cold, digestion of food, feeling pleasured, body language, and singing (Alleva & Tylka, 2021). On the other hand, body satisfaction involves the way an individual view themselves, their sense of self-worth, body shape, and their overall appearance (Alleva et al., 2014).

Figure 2: How you look versus how you view yourself

Overall functioning, performance, and daily activities

A person's general functioning, ability to perform their everyday tasks, and quality of life are greatly affected by the interaction between their body's operation, which includes mobility, health, fitness, psychological state, and sensations, and their body satisfaction, which includes their physique, appearance, and sense of self-worth. A well-functioning body and a favourable view of one's body can also lead to improved well-being, both physically and mentally (Alleva & Tylka, 2021).

• A healthy body allows people to move around swiftly, carry out daily chores, and participate in endeavours they consider interesting. Improved efficiency in exercising, sports, and everyday tasks is a result of this heightened mobility.
• Increased self-worth and self-assurance have been associated with having a positive view of one's body and a good sense of physical comfort.
• When a person feel pleased with their physical appearance, they are inclined to face responsibilities and barriers with an upbeat mindset
• People who feel happy with their physical appearance can appear less reserved in gatherings, which could enhance interactions and relationship building
• Becoming comfortable with one's appearance may foster an impression of comfort and confidence, which may promote innovation and efficiency in a wide range of circumstances
• People that feel pleased with how they look are more drawn to engage in hobbies and passions which allow independence, which may result to a happier everyday existence.

Relevant psychological research theories about body functionality

Understanding of the relationship connecting body functionality and body satisfaction can be explored by four different theories in psychology.

• According to the Self-Determination Theory, creating a sense of self-worth requires a natural drive that is motivated by competence, relatedness and autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2020). According to the self-determination theory, individuals require three basic psychological necessities: being able to have authority over one's personal choices and behaviours. Competence: a drive to be competent as well as successful in one's ambitions and actions. Relatedness: the desire to have a feeling of connection and belonging with other individuals (Ryan & Deci, 2020). According to the self-determination theory, individuals require three basic psychological necessities: being able to have authority over one's personal choices and behaviours. Competence: a drive to be competent as well as successful in one's ambitions and actions. Relatedness: the desire to have a feeling of connection and belonging with other individuals. Self-Determination Theory has been implemented in exercise psychological studies in order to comprehend why people prefer to participate in regular exercise. According to a study done by Teixeira et al., people who work out due to it fitting with their own beliefs and hobbies (autonomous drive) express feeling good about their physical appearance and general health. This illustrates how self-determination theory's core principle of intrinsic drive, which has positive effects on body satisfaction and drive for exercising, applies to practices.
• The Social Comparison Theory further highlights how people's connection with their looks is affected by the comparison to societal beauty standards. People tend to compare themselves to others with similar values and attributes but seek downwards comparison. People in Western society, which frequently highlight a thin appearance, are inclined to have greater dissatisfaction with their physical appearance than individuals from Eastern society, where wider standards of beauty are embraced (Cohen et al., 2019), with regard to interrelated research assessing body satisfaction in Western and Eastern communities. This highlights how cultural standards of beauty influence our views of oneself and how we interact with our bodies using social comparisons, reflecting the Social Comparison Principle.
• The body might be perceived using two essential aspects, with regard to the body conceptualisation theory: its physical appearance, or from the standpoint of the body-as-object or as an aspect of the body-as-process. (Alleva et al., 2014). The idea states that there are two basic manners in which individuals define their bodies: the body-as-process method focuses a greater value on the body's functions, qualities, and interactions that it makes possible. Whereas the body-as-object is when the body is regarded as a tangible thing with special focus paid to its shape, appearance, and size. The Body Conceptualization Theory has been used in research on youth self-image concerns. Teenagers are more inclined to suffer from body-image issues and indulge in unhealthy eating disorder if they view their physical appearance in a dispersed way (body-as-object) compared to a combined way (body-as-process), according to a study by Smolak and Murnen. It illustrates how various body conceptualizations affects body pleasure along with behaviors (Smolak & Murnen, 2008)
• According to the theory of objectification, women are often judged and looked at solely on the basis of how they look externally. Societal expectations and representations in the media have an impact on objectification. The concept of "objectification" creates a framework for recognising the negative effects that continuous external scrutiny and fixation on one's appearance could have on people's sense of self-worth, overall wellness, and psychological well-being. Researchers discovered that being exposed to devaluing photos in media outlets results in higher body-image monitoring and lower feelings of body worth in women in an experiment which examined the effect of media objectification on body perceptions. This is consistent with the Theory of Objectification, which states that when people are devalued in media coverage, they adopt these demeaning views and let them influence how satisfied and at ease they feel about oneself (Perloff, 2014).

Cultural aspect of body functionality and body satisfaction

Nearly every culture and race have a tendency to engage in societal comparisons or comparing oneself with someone else in different manners. People judge their peers and themselves based on their looks and popularity. Since the outcomes of those comparisons are decided by appearances others can react either good or bad about their self-worth (Jung & Lee, 2006). In order to ensure that the way they look is not different from the standard, women in communities with collectivism are more inclined to make comparisons it to that of others. They may also be more conscious of other people's judgements on their looks and how they come across to people. A difficult and varied issue that investigates how traditions, beliefs, and customs influence how others view, interact with, and value their physical appearances is the cultural component of bodily functionality and satisfaction with one's body.

• Cultural backgrounds and ethnicity have unique standards for beauty which influence how people view the value and satisfaction of their physical appearances. These norms often involve traits such as physique, complexion, features of the face, etc. In particular, some African countries often appreciate thick shapes, whilst some Southeast Asian regions might put importance on light complexions (Guan and Cole, 2012).
• More so in regards to sex, social standards have a significant effect on how individuals perceive how they look. There are inflexible gender conventions and standards surrounding physical attributes in different cultures. In particular, some societies might uphold a specific physique by wanting women to be lean, and younger men to be strong
• Certain ceremonies or practices associated with the functionality and pleasure of the body exist in some societies. For instance, within certain indigenous societies, body adjustments like body art or scarring can serve as a way to express oneself and cultural affiliation, which influence how individuals view attractiveness and how pleased they are with their physical appearances (Sullivan, 2011).
• Individuals' attitudes toward their physical appearances can be affected by social norms like individualism and collectivism. Body satisfaction may be strongly associated with adhering to the norms of society in cultures of collectivism, where unity among individuals and social integration are prioritized. Body satisfaction might be centered on individual tastes in individualistic societies where encouraging independence and creative expression is prioritized (Du, 2015).

Body functionality, body satisfaction and ageing

Case study Mrs. Rachel, a 67-year-old lady who has usually cherished an energetic way of living. She was an experienced backpacker who enjoyed the difficult tasks and breathtaking surroundings with much happiness and fulfillment. Nevertheless, Mrs. Rachel body's capabilities began declining as she got older. Her knee osteoarthritis makes it hard for her to get around during prolonged movement, and it impacted her posture. Mrs. Rachel's regular duties became harder by the decreasing state of her physical abilities. Basic tasks like climbing staircases became challenging, which had an effect on her freedom of motion in general. These ailments irritated her and had an adverse effect on her mental wellness, which reduced her feeling of body pleasure.

Age-related physiological changes to a person's body tend to involve a loss of bones, skin firmness, and muscle mass. General well-being, endurance, and mobility may be negatively affected by these changes. Long-term conditions including heart conditions, arthritis, and diabetes tend to appear from growing older. Such illnesses can affect how the body operates and may call for changes in medical treatment or lifestyle. The focus on looking young in beauty norms in society frequently causes older persons to feel unhappy with their physical appearances. The desire to maintain an energetic look may contribute to challenges with self-worth and self-image. Body satisfaction can be greatly affected by society's views regarding aging. Although some cultures point out knowledge gained from old age and experience, others attach greater importance to looking young.

• Women are more prone to this sexual harassment their teenage years according to the objectification theory.
• Women might feel less inclined as they grow older to pay attention to their looks and can become more accepting of their overall well-being as a result.
• The idea of becoming "middle-aged" has caused some men 60 and beyond to forcing themselves to the limits of their strength.
• While it's possible that when women grow older, they might become more likely to have desirable body images and healthy living, some women might encounter poor self-image (Alleva & Tylka, 2021).

Mental health and body functionalities

Feature	Effect on a person's mental health	Description
Sleep pattern	Negative effect: Sleep deprivation and other sleep disorders are linked to memory loss, feelings of stress, and irritability	The mind's capacity to deal with pressures and difficult emotions is hindered by recurrent trouble sleeping, which are related to depression and anxiety.
	Positive effect: A good night's sleep promotes psychological wellness, minimises the likelihood of psychological disorders, and boosts attention.	A regular sleep schedule promotes cognitive functioning by supporting in the processing of feelings,  reducing hormones related to stress and improving overall psychological well-being.
Exercising	Negative effect: Elevated anxiety, tension, and a decrease in emotional wellness may arise from an unhealthy diet and inadequate physical activity.	Lack of exercise over a long period of time may result in overweight and associated psychological issues such as low self-image and signs of depression
	positive effect: Elevated anxiety, tension, and a decrease in emotional wellness may arise from an unhealthy diet and inadequate physical activity.	Being active stimulates the production of neurotransmitters, which lowers psychological problems and increases happiness
Diet	Negative effect: A greater likelihood of mental illnesses like depressive disorders has been associated to unhealthy eating habits, such as sugary foods and packaged meals	Sugar- and processed-food-rich meals may trigger inflammation, which disrupts the chemical makeup of neurotransmitters and worsens mental illnesses
	Positive effect: Foods that are balanced and high in nutrients have a beneficial effect on the functioning of the brain, boosting emotional and mental health.	Sustaining cognitive functioning and mental wellness is dependent greatly on micronutrients like fish oil, vitamins, and antioxidants

• The relationship between our mental state and one's physical state is an area of major concern as it provides an insight on how the way we look affects our mental state.

• Strong psychological wellness is built on the base of a healthy body. Regular exercising, sleeping well, and eating a balanced diet, are a vital part of good mental health.

• Endorphins released during a workout reduce the signs of anxiety and despair, creating a healthier mindset (Mikkelsen et al., 2017).
• Self-worth has long been tied to physical fitness and good health, and those who have high self-confidence are less inclined to engage in depressed behaviours.

Prevention and education

It is often hypothesised that societal norms forces both men and women to see themselves mainly in terms of how they look rather than the abilities they possess. A poor perception of one's body along with maladaptive habits, such as anxiety, stress, depression, and disordered eating may stem from this (Linardon & Tylka, 2023). Some prevention for good self-esteem and better body image are:

• Fostering dieting and the food-binge cycle, with the support of a nutritious eating and active lifestyles among teens and young people.
• Use of negative languages such as "junk" food, or "bad" food should be minimal.
• Teenage females could benefit from being provided with self-esteem building habits that assist them in diminishing the worth of physical beauty in order to avoid problems with eating.
• Children are more inclined to appreciate their many distinctive traits alongside the traits of others if they develop a positive view of themselves that involves of aspects of their attributes rather than how they look.

1 Body functionality is the overall well-being of the body True False 2 Higher self-esteem can be a result of a positive body image True False

Conclusion

• Body functionality and body satisfaction can affect a person's achievement and daily routines.
• Having a clear understanding of what body functionality and body satisfaction can help the understanding of our physical and mental well-being. These understanding are explained using 4 psychological theories.
• Different culture view body image different, and people in eastern society compare themselves to other more than western societies.
• Women are more likely to have higher self-esteem as they get older compare to men as they focus on their qualities more than their physical appearances.
• Physical exercises can help boost self-esteem and our overall well-being
• Fostering a healthier diet and food program, using of positive language
• Teaching children about their qualities instead of their looks can help with positive body image.

See also

• Objectification (wikipedia)
• Body image and emotional well-being (Book chapter, 2019)
• Body positivity (Wikipedia)
• Fitspiration and body image (Book chapter, 2021)

References

Alleva, J. M., & Tylka, T. L. (2021). Body functionality: A review of the literature. Body Image, 36, 149-171.

Alleva, Jessica M. et al. “What Can My Body Do Vs. How Does It Look?: A Qualitative Analysis of Young Women and Men’s Descriptions of Their Body Functionality or Physical Appearance.” Body image 31 (2019): 71–80. Web.

Alleva, Martijn, C., Jansen, A., & Nederkoorn, C. (2014). Body language: affecting body satisfaction by describing the body in functionality terms. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38(2), 181–196. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684313507897

Cohen, Rachel et al. “BoPo on Instagram: An Experimental Investigation of the Effects of Viewing Body Positive Content on Young Women’s Mood and Body Image.” New media & society 21.7 (2019): 1546–1564. Web.

Du. (2015). Media Influences on Body Image Dissatisfaction: the Moderating Role of Collectivism vs. Individualism. Journal of Student Research (Houston, Tex.), 4(2), 73–87. https://doi.org/10.47611/jsr.v4i2.254

Guan, Lee, F., & Cole, E. R. (2012). Complexity of Culture: The Role of Identity and Context in Bicultural Individuals’ Body Ideals. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18(3), 247–257. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028730

Jung, J., & Lee, S. H. (2006). Cross‐cultural comparisons of appearance self‐schema, body image, self‐esteem, and dieting behavior between Korean and US women. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 34(4), 350-365.

Linardon, Messer, M., & Tylka, T. L. (2023). Functionality appreciation and its correlates: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Body Image, 45, 65–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2023.02.002

Mikkelsen, K., Stojanovska, L., Polenakovic, M., Bosevski, M., & Apostolopoulos, V. (2017). Exercise and mental health. Maturitas, 106, 48-56.

O’DEA, J. A. (2004). Evidence for a self-esteem approach in the prevention of body image and eating problems among children and adolescents. Eating disorders, 12(3), 225-239.

Perloff, Richard M. “Social Media Effects on Young Women’s Body Image Concerns: Theoretical Perspectives and an Agenda for Research.” Sex roles 71.11-12 (2014): 363–377. Web.

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary educational psychology, 61, 101860.

Rondanelli, Mariangela et al. “Whey Protein, Amino Acids, and Vitamin D Supplementation with Physical Activity Increases Fat-Free Mass and Strength, Functionality, and Quality of Life and Decreases Inflammation in Sarcopenic Elderly.” The American journal of clinical nutrition 103.3 (2016): 830–840. Web.

Sullivan. (2011). Book Review: Under the Skin: A Psychoanalytic Study of Body Modification [Review of Book Review: Under the Skin: A Psychoanalytic Study of Body Modification]. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 59(2), 409–416. SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003065111406273

Teixeira, Pedro J et al. “Exercise, Physical Activity, and Self-Determination Theory: a Systematic Review.” The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity 9.1 (2012): 78–78. Web.

Tylka, & Sabik, N. J. (2010). Integrating Social Comparison Theory and Self-Esteem within Objectification Theory to Predict Women’s Disordered Eating. Sex Roles, 63(1-2), 18–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9785-3

Smolak, Linda, and Sarah K Murnen. “Drive for Leanness: Assessment and Relationship to Gender, Gender Role and Objectification.” Body image 5.3 (2008): 251–260. Web.

External links

• Body image: change the way you see yourself (youtube)
• What is and what is not positive body image?
• Whole grain-rich diet reduces body weight
• Beauty standards (TedX)
• Peer relations, body image, and disordered eating in adolescent girls