The Bamberg Introduction to the History of Islam (BIHI) 02
2. The Beginnings of the New Religion: Muḥammad in Mecca
[edit | edit source]This session explores Muḥammad's religious development within the Ḥanīfic milieu, his followers, and his confrontations with opponents in Mecca up to 622. His early religious message is then reconstructed on the basis of Qur'anic statements. Finally, the new forms of worship that defined the emerging religious community are discussed.
2.1. Muḥammad, His Early Followers, and Opponents According to Arabic Sources
[edit | edit source]2.1.1. The Nature of the Sources
[edit | edit source]Muḥammad's life is illuminated by a large number of Arabic sources. The most prominent and earliest extant biographical work dedicated solely to his person is known as the Sīrah of Ibn Hishām (d. 834). In addition to this, there are several other biographical and historiographical works, such as the universal chronicle by Abū Jaʿfar Ibn Jarīr al-Ṭabarī (d. 923). These works primarily consist of individual reports (akhbār, sing. khabar), each focusing on specific individuals, groups, or events. A formal feature of these reports is that each contains two parts: the main text concerning the event and the preceding chain of transmission (isnād). These chains of transmission reveal that the authors of these works drew their information from a wealth of earlier sources, which have not been preserved independently. The Sīrah of Ibn Hishām and al-Ṭabarī’s reports on the life of the Prophet, for example, are based on a no longer extant work by the scholar Ibn Isḥāq (d. 767), who served at the court of the Abbasid caliph al-Manṣūr. He and other authors who did not rely on Ibn Isḥāq obtained much of their information from Ibn Shihāb al-Zuhrī (d. 742), a scholar at the Umayyad court. Al-Zuhrī, in turn, drew on earlier authorities. The written tradition was therefore preceded by a longer tradition that was largely oral.
In addition to the individual accounts, the previously mentioned works include genealogies, poems, documents, and several lists of names of individuals who participated in specific events. This material is often presented without the inclusion of an isnād, but this does not necessarily make it less authentic. However, some of the reports found in the Arabic sources have a legendary character. They primarily served to demonstrate Muḥammad's elevated religious rank. Setting aside such accounts containing miraculous elements, it is possible to reconstruct Muḥammad's life and the events surrounding him with reasonable accuracy based on the aforementioned sources.
2.1.2. Muḥammad and His Religious Development
[edit | edit source]Al-Ṭabarī quotes the historian and genealogist Ibn al-Kalbī (d. 819), who states that Muḥammad was born in the 42nd year following the accession of the Sasanian ruler Khosrow I Anushirvan, thus dating his birth to 573 CE. Muḥammad's father, ʿAbdallāh, from the Banū Hāshim clan, died shortly before his son's birth while on a business trip. Muḥammad lived for a time with his mother, Āmina, and her family, who belonged to the Banū Zuhrah clan. At the age of six, Muḥammad lost his mother as well, leading him to come under the care of his paternal grandfather ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, who at that time was the ḥakam of the Banū Hāshim and held the office of siqāyah, responsible for providing water to pilgrims. He is also credited with the restoration of the Zamzam well at the Kaaba, from which the pilgrims were supplied with water. Following the death of ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib two years later, Muḥammad was taken into the household of his paternal uncle Abū Ṭālib, who inherited the leadership of the clan from his father and worked as a merchant.
When Muḥammad was about 25 years old, a wealthy widow named Khadījah asked him to act as her representative on a trip to Syria. Khadījah was pleased by the manner in which Muḥammad executed her commission and proposed marriage to him. This marriage marked a significant turning point in Muḥammad's life. According to Arab custom, as a minor, Muḥammad had not inherited anything from his mother or grandfather. However, his marriage to Khadījah, which likely followed an uxorilocal arrangement, provided him with the necessary capital to establish himself as a merchant. This “ascent” is referenced in the following Qur'anic verses according to Islamic tradition:
| “ | Did He not find [you] an orphan and protect ([you])? Did He not find [you] wandering and direct ([you])? Did He not find [you] destitute and enrich ([you])? | ” |
Through his marriage to Khadījah, Muḥammad was wealthy enough to relieve his uncle Abū Ṭālib, who had fallen into debt, by taking his still young son ʿAlī into his household.
At a certain point, Muḥammad seems to have come into contact with the Ḥanīfs. Several traditions report that it was the Ḥanīf Zayd ibn ʿAmr who influenced him to refrain from consuming meat from animals sacrificed to idols. At some point, he also seems to have begun engaging in particular religious practices. The following words are transmitted from ʿĀ'isha bint Abī Bakr, Muḥammad's later wife:
| “ | Thenceforth solitude became dear to him, and he used to seclude himself in the cave of Ḥirā', where he would engage in tahannuth (and that is a worship for a number of nights) before returning to his family and getting provisions again for this purpose. He would then return to Khadījah and take provisions for a like period. | ” |
The tahannuth was a form of pious exercise practiced primarily by the Ḥanīfs during Muḥammad's time. It was dedicated to the veneration of the sacred precinct of Mecca and was performed during the summer. In addition to weeks of seclusion on Jabal al-Nūr (Mountain of Light), it involved giving alms. It is also known that Muḥammad observed a several-day fast during the summer month of Shaʿbān at that time.
According to Arabic tradition, during one of his devotional retreats in Cave of Ḥirā' on Jabal al-Nūr, Muḥammad had a religious experience that deeply unsettled him. The precise nature of this experience is challenging to reconstruct. In Surah 53:3-18 of the Qur'an, we find a striking account of a vision that may possibly describe this initial experience. According to this, Muḥammad saw a figure that “grew clear to view when he was on the uppermost horizon,” then approached and descended “till he was (distant) two bows' length or even nearer.” This figure, characterized by “mighty powers and vigor,” communicated with him through revelation (waḥy) and taught him something. The figure that Muḥammad saw is not specified in the Qur'anic account.
Muḥammad himself appears to have been uncertain about the identity of the figure he had seen during his experience. According to Arabic sources, he, or rather his wife Khadījah, consulted a man named Waraqah ibn Nawfal regarding the experience. Waraqah is also associated with the Ḥanīfs but is said to have converted to Christianity and to have been knowledgeable about the “holy scriptures.” He reportedly interpreted Muḥammad's experience to mean that the “great law” (an-nāmūs al-akbar), which had previously been revealed to Moses, was now revealed to him. If this account reflects a real incident, it provides further evidence of the significant influence of the Ḥanīfs in the milieu in which Islam emerged. Waraqah's words likely reinforced Muḥammad's belief that he had received a religious message during his experience in the Cave of Ḥirā'.
2.1.3. The New Community
[edit | edit source]According to Arab sources, Khadījah helped her husband come to terms with his alarming experiences within a religious context and continued to support him whenever he encountered rejection from his surroundings. It is widely accepted that she was the first person to believe in his religious message. However, there is disagreement concerning who the first man to believe in Muḥammad's proclamation was. Some sources suggest it was his young cousin ʿAlī, who was about nine years old at the time, while others propose it was Zayd ibn Ḥārithah, a freed slave living with Muḥammad. Due to his young age, ʿAlī’s effectiveness was certainly limited. Another individual mentioned in this context is the cloth merchant Abū Bakr ibn Abī Quḥāfa. He had connections to the Ḥanīf Umayya ibn Abī Al-Ṣalt, who had been anticipating the arrival of a prophet. Abū Bakr appears to have played a pivotal role in spreading Muḥammad’s message. In his biography of the Prophet, Ibn Hishām names five individuals who joined Muḥammad due to his persuasion. Abū Bakr evidently held considerable influence in Meccan society at the time.
Muḥammad himself seems to have been initially reserved in disseminating his message. Arabic reports state that for roughly three years after his prophetic calling, he shared the revelations he received only with his family and a few chosen friends. It was only later, around 613 CE, that he began to preach publicly. When the Prophet had gathered nearly 40 followers, he reportedly made the house of a certain al-Arqam the center of his preaching activities. Al-Arqam was a young man belonging to the influential Makhzūm clan. His father had likely already passed away, and he himself appears to have been quite wealthy. His house was evidently large enough to accommodate Muḥammad's followers and was located near the center of Mecca. For a time, it became the center of the new religious movement. Although Muḥammad did not reside in this house, he gathered there with his followers for worship.
In his biography of the Prophet, Ibn Hishām provides a list titled al-Sābiqūn al-Awwalūn (“the earliest forerunners”), naming 53 individuals who were among Muḥammad’s earliest followers. The fact that some of these individuals later played no significant role suggests that the list contains authentic early records. Thus, conclusions can be drawn about the types of people who were among the first to support the new religious movement. A notable aspect of the composition of Muḥammad’s earliest followers is that young people clearly dominated. Almost all were under the age of 30 when they joined Muḥammad, with only a few being older than 35. Among the early followers were also several young women and girls, such as Asmāʾ and ʿĀʾisha, the daughters of Abū Bakr.
Another notable feature is the wide distribution of followers across the various clans of the Quraysh. Among them were members of the two powerful clans of ʿAbd Shams and Makhzūm, rivals for the leadership of the city of Mecca, as well as members of the less influential clans of Zuhrah, Taym, and ʿAdī. However, it was typically only individual members of these clans who joined Muḥammad. Additionally, a number of men were only indirectly connected to these clans. They were slaves or freedmen of clan members and were thus in a disadvantaged position. Finally, there were also men from other parts of Arabia who joined Muḥammad. One example is Abū Dharr from the Ghifār clan, which was settled far to the north of Mecca. Even before his contact with Muḥammad, he is said to have worshipped Allāh as the monotheistic God and rejected idol worship. After coming to Mecca and joining Muḥammad, he returned to the Ghifār clan, reportedly converting half of them to Muḥammad's teachings.
A considerable number of Muḥammad’s followers, like Muḥammad himself, were active as merchants. Examples include Abū Bakr, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn ʿAwf, and ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān, the latter of whom was a cloth merchant and would later play a crucial political role after the Prophet’s death. Thus, early Islam was predominantly a religion of merchants. Numerous reports attest to the great willingness among Muḥammad's wealthier followers to dedicate their personal wealth to the community and to support its poorer members: Khālid ibn Saʿīd of the ʿAbd Shams clan gifted Muḥammad several slaves he had inherited from his father after joining him; Abū Bakr is said to have given Abū Dharr two garments to improve his material condition when he came to Mecca and joined the community. This solidarity among Muḥammad’s early followers may have been one of the reasons for the strong appeal of his new religion. Moreover, the relationships among Muḥammad’s followers were further strengthened through marital ties. For instance, the Prophet married his own daughter Ruqayya to ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān.
Some of Muḥammad's early followers brought their own religious convictions, thereby exerting influence on the development of Islam. Particular mention should be made of ʿUthmān ibn Maẓʿūn of the Jumah clan, who is reported to have had ascetic tendencies even before Muḥammad’s emergence and to have abstained from intoxicating beverages (khamr). This stance greatly set him apart from the other companions of the Prophet, who, at that time, continued to have drinking feasts and would thus frequently arrive at prayer intoxicated (cf. Q 4:43). Several years later, however, a general prohibition on intoxicating beverages was imposed on the Prophet's followers (cf. Q 5:90). In other respects, however, ʿUthmān ibn Maẓʿūn’s ascetic ideas were evidently rejected. It is reported that in response to Muḥammad’s sermons on the Day of Judgment, he refrained from eating meat and abstained from sexual activity, and even considered self-castration. When other companions of the Prophet sought to follow his example, the Prophet forbade such forms of asceticism. The Qur’anic verse, “O ye who believe! Forbid not the good things which Allah hath made lawful for you” (Q 5:87), was revealed in this context, according to Islamic tradition. Some of Muḥammad's earliest followers also had ties to the Ḥanīfic milieu. For example, his follower Saʿīd ibn Zayd was the son of the Ḥanīf Zayd ibn ʿAmr.
2.1.4. Muḥammad’s Opponents in Mecca
[edit | edit source]Muḥammad's public preaching in Mecca, including at the markets held in the lead-up to the Ḥajj, attracted considerable attention, with many men and women embracing his message. However, over time, opposition to his movement gradually emerged from within the Quraysh. A key factor was that Muḥammad, in the name of Allāh, criticized the deities worshipped by the Quraysh alongside Allāh and spoke of the eternal damnation of their forefathers, having died in a state of disbelief. This is said to have provoked a faction within the Quraysh to actively oppose him, leading to Muḥammad losing a substantial number of his early followers. Historical sources recount that a delegation of the Quraysh approached Muḥammad’s uncle, Abū Ṭālib, to voice their grievances concerning Muḥammad’s actions. Among them was al-Walīd ibn al-Mughīra, the Ḥakam of the Makhzūm clan. Another figure was Al-Naḍr ibn al-Ḥārith, a wealthy merchant from the ʿAbd al-Dār clan, who maintained trade relations with Persia and was well-acquainted with Persian epic traditions. Al-Nadr openly ridiculed the accounts Muḥammad recited, dismissing them as nothing more than "legends of the ancients" (asāṭīr al-awwalīn), and through his more entertaining narratives, he drew away some of Muḥammad’s listeners—a dynamic likely reflected in the Qur'an (Q 68:15; 83:13).
Initially, opposition to the new religious proclamation remained verbal. However, the tone of the polemics against Muḥammad grew increasingly hostile over time. Abū Jahl from the Makhzūm clan was particularly prominent in this regard. Upon learning that someone had joined Muḥammad, he would confront them aggressively. If the person was a merchant, he would add: “By God, we will make sure that your goods do not sell, and we will destroy your property.” Other companions of Muḥammad, such as Khabbāb ibn al-Aratt, who lacked tribal protection in Mecca, were subjected to torture in an attempt to force them to renounce their faith. Other companions of Muḥammad, such as Khabbāb ibn al-Aratt, who lacked protection in Mecca, were subjected to torture in an effort to coerce them into renouncing their faith. Amid increasing oppression by their Meccan opponents, around 615, approximately 70 of Muḥammad's followers emigrated to the Ethiopian Kingdom of Aksum, seeking the protection of its ruling Christian king, which was no longer guaranteed to them in Mecca. Sympathies toward Christianity may have also played a role in this emigration, as it is reported that the ascetic ʿUthmān ibn Maẓʿūn led the group of emigrants. Some of them later converted to Christianity, thereby severing their ties with the Muslim community. However, a decisive factor in choosing Ethiopia as a place of refuge may have been the close trade relations between the Quraysh and the Kingdom of Aksum. Consequently, this migration established a second Muslim community in exile in Ethiopia, in addition to the original community in Mecca.
According to Ibn Isḥāq, as reported by al-Ṭabarī, after many of his followers emigrated, Muḥammad expressed a desire to reconcile with his tribe. It was in this context that he reportedly received a revelation, the first two verses of which stated: “Have y[ou] thought upon Al-Lāt and al-ʿUzzā and Manāt, the third, the other?” These two verses are found in the Qur’an (Q 53:19f). They were followed, according to Ibn Ishaq, by two others that Muḥammad proclaimed but that were not included in the Qur’an: “These are the exalted gharānīq whose intercession is accepted (by Allāh). The term gharānīq (literally "cranes"), as noted in Ibn al-Kalbī’s Book of Idols, was used by the Quraysh to invoke the deities al-Lāt, al-ʿUzzā, and Manāt during the circumambulation of the Kaaba, hoping for their intercession with Allāh. Ibn Isḥāq further recounts that the Quraysh merchants understood Muḥammad's pronouncement as an acknowledgment of the three deities. When he prostrated out of fear of God, they are said to have followed his example. However, later—according to some accounts, that same evening—Muḥammad realized that these final verses did not originate from Allāh; rather, they had been given to him by Satan. If this account reflects a real event, it suggests that Muḥammad initially regarded the gharānīq verses, later known as the Satanic Verses, as divine revelation, only to subsequently declare them not to be part of the revelation. Al-Ṭabarī cites this account in his commentary on the Qur’an as an explanation for the following Qur’anic verse:
| “ | Never sent We a messenger or a prophet before [you] but when He recited (the message) Satan proposed (opposition) in respect of that which he recited thereof. But Allah abolishe[s] that which Satan propose[s]. Then Allah establishe[s] His revelations. | ” |
The incident of the whispering of the "satanic verses" appears to be attested in the Qur’an itself, as no other event aligns as precisely with this text. It is reported that some of the Muslim exiles in Ethiopia returned to Mecca after rumors spread that the Quraysh had accepted Islam, following this incident. This indicates that Muḥammad maintained his henotheistic compromise for longer than just one day. For a time, he was apparently willing to tolerate belief in the intercession of lesser deities as a compromise. However, the fact that he later declared these verses invalid indicates that the compromise ultimately proved unsatisfactory for him.
Following the end of this episode, the Quraysh intensified their measures against Muḥammad. Around 616, Abū Jahl persuaded most of the Meccan clans to sever business and marriage ties with Banū Hāshim. The boycott reportedly lasted over two years, though it may not have been strictly enforced, as the Banū Hāshim do not seem to have suffered greatly from it. Eventually, around 619, it was completely lifted when various clans grew weary of it. Muḥammad’s ability to continue propagating his religion despite the boycott can be attributed to the concept of collective responsibility, which encompassed the principle of blood feud. Although the clan did not approve of his religious activities, they were more willing to submit to the boycott imposed by the other clans rather than deny Muḥammad their support. In particular, Abū Ṭālib, who was still the head of the Hāshim clan at that time, proved to be a steadfast protector of Muḥammad, despite likely never having converted to Islam himself.
2.1.5. The Search for External Allies
[edit | edit source]In 619, Muḥammad suffered a severe blow with the deaths of his uncle Abū Ṭālib and his wife Khadījah in quick succession. Abū Lahab, another of Muḥammad’s uncles, succeeded Abū Ṭālib as the head of the Hāshim clan. He was evidently responsible for the significant decline in Muḥammad's position in Mecca. During the boycott, Abū Lahab had left the Banū Hāshim and married one of Abū Sufyān’s sisters from the ʿAbd Shams clan, which was as influential in Mecca’s commercial sphere as Abū Jahl and equally opposed to Muḥammad. Upon assuming leadership of the Banū Hāshim, Abū Lahab initially promised to protect Muḥammad as Abū Ṭālib had done. However, shortly after, when Muḥammad claimed that his grandfather ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib was in hell —a statement that insulted the entire clan— Abū Lahab used it as a pretext to withdraw his protection without any loss of honor. As a result, Muḥammad, who was prohibited by Abū Lahab from preaching, no longer had the opportunity to publicly propagate his religion. His exasperation is reflected in Surah 111, where both Abū Lahab and his wife are reproached.
During this time, Khawlah bint al-Ḥakīm, a loyal follower of Muḥammad, arranged a new marriage for him with Sawdah bint Zamʿah, the widow of an emigrant who had died during the exile in Abyssinia. Muḥammad also married ʿĀ'isha, the daughter of his companion Abū Bakr; however, due to her tender age, she initially remained in her father's household. With the aim of securing new allies, Muḥammad engaged with several nomadic tribes that frequented the markets surrounding Mecca. He also traveled to the neighboring city of al-Ṭā'if to negotiate with its inhabitants. However, his efforts proved unsuccessful. The precariousness of his situation becomes evident as, upon his return to Mecca, he had to seek the protection guarantee from the leader of another clan before he could enter the city. Only the third person he approached, Muṭʿim ibn ʿAdī, agreed to offer him protection, albeit under certain conditions.
Among the individuals Muḥammad likely encountered around 620 at the markets surrounding Mecca was a group of six men from the city of Yathrib. They were captivated by the way Muḥammad presented his new monotheistic religion and decided to follow him. After returning to Yathrib, they began spreading his teachings there. During the pilgrimage of 621, five of these men returned, bringing seven other men with them. At that time, tensions existed between the Aws and Khazraj tribes living in Yathrib, which were also linked to the unsettled status of the Jewish tribes residing in the oasis. Around 617, a major battle had taken place at Buʿāth, in the southeastern part of the oasis, involving most of Yathrib’s inhabitants. Since a formal peace agreement had not been concluded after the battle, the threat of renewed blood feuds persisted. Through the new community with Muḥammad and by joining his religion, the envoys from Yathrib likely hoped to mend the rift that divided their society. While the six men Muḥammad had met in 620 all belonged to the Khazraj tribe, members of the Aws tribe also participated in the 621 meeting.
At a remote location called ʿAqabah, the twelve men pledged to receive Muḥammad and his followers and to protect them as they would their own wives and children (hence bayʿat al-nisāʾ “Pledge of the Women”). On this occasion, Muḥammad's followers from Yathrib likely received the title Anṣār (“Helpers”). Islamic tradition associates this event with Qur'anic verse 61:14, in which believers are called to be “Helpers of God” (anṣār Allāh), akin to how the disciples of Jesus were Helpers of God, as referenced in the same verse. According to Ibn Isḥāq, Muḥammad sent one of his Meccan followers, Muṣʿab ibn ʿUmayr, to Yathrib along with the twelve men and instructed him “to recite the Qurʾān to them, teach them Islam, and instruct them in the religion.” Muṣʿab ibn ʿUmayr, was to serve them as an Imām, acting as a role model and an example. In this way, a third community of Muḥammad's followers was established in Yathrib, alongside those in Mecca and Ethiopia.
During the Hajj of the following year (June 622), a second meeting took place at al-ʿAqabah, this time attended by 73 men from Yathrib. They swore an oath of loyalty to Muḥammad, not only pledging obedience but also vowing to fight for him. This oath thus became known as the bayʿat al-ḥarb (“Pledge of War”). From that point on, Muslims began traveling to Medina in groups. In September 622, Muḥammad and his companion Abū Bakr secretly left Mecca and journeyed to Yathrib. This migration of the Prophet from Mecca is known as the Hijrah (literally “severance”) and marked the beginning of a new chapter in the history of the new religion.