Commercial diving/Approaches to Safety in Commercial Diving

Relevance: Scuba diving, Surface supplied diving, Surface oriented wet bell diving.

Required outcomes:

Discuss approaches to safety including Hazard Identification and Risk Assessments (HIRA), Hazard Ratings and good housekeeping and define the concept of “informed consent”
Define and discuss the use of Personal Protective Equipment including relevance to statutory requirements
Discuss the safe lifting of loads, both manually and with rigging, in the context of commercial diving
Define and discuss Safety Management systems (SMS) including Emergency Response Plans safety drills, Medical Emergency Response (MER) and Emergency Evacuation Procedures
Discuss the principles of a company safety culture including statutory requirements and the functions of Health and Safety Representative and committees
State the basic requirements of Incident and Accident Reporting
List the classes of emergency for which an emergency plan should be in place before a diving operation

Approaches to safety

The primary purpose of occupational diver training is to prepare the diver to work safely in an inherently hazardous environment. The aim is for the diver to complete the operation without injury or long term health issues. Actually getting the job done is of secondary importance. It is the employer's responsibility to ensure that the personnel selected are competent to do the work, though this may also require occupational training.

Safety can be improved by a number of methods. Some of these are discussed below, and others may be the topic of other modules. Most of the training associated with this course is intended to improve diver safety at work, and the employer is also obliged to exercise due diligence in the pursuit of a safe working environment and safe working practices. This requires ongoing revision of the skills and procedures set up for the purpose, and ensuring that plant and equipment are appropriate to the job and in safe working order.

The safety of underwater diving operations can be improved by reducing the frequency of human error and the consequences when it does occur. Human error can be defined as an individual's deviation from acceptable or desirable practice which culminates in undesirable or unexpected results.

Dive safety is primarily a function of four factors: the environment, equipment, individual diver performance and dive team performance. The water is a harsh and alien environment which can impose severe physical and psychological stress on a diver. The remaining factors must be controlled and coordinated so the diver can overcome the stresses imposed by the underwater environment and work safely. Diving equipment is crucial because it provides life support to the diver, but the majority of dive accidents are caused by individual diver panic and an associated degradation of the individual diver's performance. - M.A. Blumenberg, 1996

Human error is inevitable and everyone makes mistakes at some time. The consequences of these errors are varied and depend on many factors. Most errors are minor and do not cause significant harm, but others can have catastrophic consequences. Examples of human error leading to accidents are available in vast numbers, as it is the direct cause of 60% to 80% of all accidents. In a high risk environment, as is the case in diving, human error is more likely to have catastrophic consequences. A study by William P. Morgan indicates that over half of all divers in the survey had experienced panic underwater at some time during their diving career. These findings were independently corroborated by a survey that suggested 65% of recreational divers have panicked under water. Panic frequently leads to errors in a diver's judgment or performance, and may result in an accident. Human error and panic are considered to be the leading causes of dive accidents and fatalities.

Incident and accidents usually occur as a result of exposure to an unexpected combination of hazards or a breakdown of safeguards. Only 4.46% of the recreational diving fatalities in a 1997 study were attributable to a single contributory cause. The remaining fatalities probably arose as a result of a progressive sequence of events involving two or more procedural errors or equipment failures, and since procedural errors are generally avoidable by a well-trained, intelligent and alert diver, working in an organised structure, and not under excessive stress, it was concluded that the low accident rate in commercial scuba diving is due to this factor. The study also concluded that it would be impossible to eliminate absolutely all minor contraindications of scuba diving, as this would result in overwhelming bureaucracy and would bring all diving to a halt.

Informed consent

The principle behind informed consent is that when a person is employed to do a dangerous job, they should share in the responsibility for the possible consequences, as well as the reward. A person can only give informed consent to those conditions on which they have been informed and which they understand, and providing the information and disclosing as much of it as may reasonably assessed as relevant is the responsibility of the person for whom the work is to be done. This responsibility is shared by the chain of command. The person who is to do the job is the one who must give their consent to accept the risk, and this requires them to understand the risk. This implies understanding the hazards, the consequences of an incident in connection with the hazards and to some extent the probability of an incident occurring. If the risk is not balanced by the reward, then it should not be taken. The amount of risk that an employee may be exposed to varies with the occupation, but the law requires it to be restricted to the minimum that is reasonably practicable, and therein lies the difficulty. Diving is an inherently hazardous occupation, but the risk is generally not unacceptably high because a great deal of effort and expense is put into controlling the risk. The inherent risks of diving are necessarily accepted when a person takes employment as a diver. The training that is required is to ensure that the diver both understands the inherent hazards and their associated risks, and is competent to use the equipment and procedures found by design and experience to be appropriate for controlling those risks. An important part of the training is that the diver understands the risks sufficiently to give or withhold informed consent for any given dive plan.

Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment

Hazard identification and risk assessment (HIRA) is a required part of dive planning. It includes the identification of hazards associated with the operation, identification of the persons and equipment that might be affected, identification of possible mechanisms of injury or damage and the associated possible consequences, and estimates of their severity and how likely it is for them to occur. This information is analysed to estimate the risks associated with these combinations of hazard, consequence and probability, and where necessary, controls set up to reduce the risks and mitigation procedures planned in case the incidents occur in spite of the precautions being taken. Identification of hazards is the first step in risk assessment.

Hazard: A hazard is any agent that can cause loss, harm or damage to life, health, property or the environment.; Hazards can be dormant or potential, with only a theoretical probability of harm. An event that is caused by interaction with a hazard is called an incident. The likely severity of the undesirable consequences of an incident associated with a hazard, combined with the probability of this occurring, constitute the associated risk. If there is no possibility of a hazard contributing towards an incident, there is no associated risk.

Classification

Hazards can be classified as different types in several ways. A key concept in identifying a hazard is the presence of stored energy that, when released, can cause damage. Stored energy can occur in many forms: chemical, mechanical, thermal, radioactive, electrical, pressure, gravitational etc. Another class of hazard does not involve release of stored energy, rather it involves the presence of hazardous situations. Examples include confined or limited egress spaces, oxygen-depleted atmospheres, awkward positions, repetitive motions, obstructions and snag points, low-hanging or protruding objects, etc. In many of these cases the energy is supplied by the subject.

One of these ways is by specifying the origin of the hazard. Hazards may also be classified as natural, anthropogenic (human impact on the environment, technological, or social. They may also be classified as health or safety hazards and by the populations that may be affected, and the severity of the associated risk.

In most cases a hazard may affect a range of targets, and have little or no effect on others. Identification of hazards assumes that the potential targets are defined. For most health and safety purposes, the accurate classification of hazards is less important than identifying their presence. If you are hit on the head by a falling rock it is not a major consideration whether it was a physical or gravitational hazard, or whether it was a natural or anthropogenic hazard.

Based on energy source

Biological hazard

Biological hazards, also known as biohazards, originate in biological processes of living organisms, and refer to agents that pose a threat to the health of living organisms, the security of property, or the health of the environment.

The term and its associated symbol may be used as a warning, so that those potentially exposed to the substances will know to take precautions.

Biological hazards include viruses, parasites, bacteria, food, fungi, and foreign toxins.

Many specific biological hazards have been identified. For example, the hazards of naturally-occurring bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella, are well known as disease-causing pathogens and a variety of measures have been taken to limit human exposure to these microorganisms through food safety, good personal hygiene and education. However, the potential for new biological hazards exists through the discovery of new microorganisms and through the development of new genetically modified (GM) organisms.

Biological hazards can include medical waste or samples of a microorganism, virus or toxin (from a biological source) that can affect health.

Many biological hazards are associated with food, including certain viruses, parasites, fungi, bacteria, and plant and seafood toxins. Disease in humans can come from biological hazards in the form of infection by bacteria, antigens, viruses, or parasites.

Chemical hazard

A chemical can be considered a hazard if by virtue of its intrinsic properties it can cause harm or danger to humans, property, or the environment.

Health hazards associated with chemicals are dependent on the dose or amount of the chemical. For example, iodine in the form of potassium iodate is used to produce iodised salt. When applied at a rate of 20 mg of potassium iodate per 1000 mg of table salt, the chemical is beneficial in preventing goiter, while iodine intakes of 1200–9500 mg in one dose have been known to cause death. Some chemicals have a cumulative biological effect, while others are metabolically eliminated over time. Other chemical hazards may depend on concentration for their effects.

Some harmful chemicals occur naturally in certain geological formations, such as radon gas or arsenic. Other chemicals include products with commercial uses, such as agricultural and industrial chemicals, pesticides and products developed for home use. Corrosive chemicals like sulfuric acid and caustic soda can cause severe skin burns. Many other chemicals used in industrial and laboratory settings can cause respiratory, digestive, or nervous system problems if they are inhaled, ingested, or absorbed through the skin.

Mechanical hazard

A mechanical hazard is any hazard involving a mechanism, machine or industrial process. Motor vehicles, and aircraft pose mechanical hazards. Compressed gases or liquids can also be considered a mechanical hazard.

Hazard identification of new machines and/or industrial processes occurs at various stages in the design of the new machine or process. These hazard identification studies focus mainly on deviations from the intended use or design and the harm that may occur as a result of these deviations.

Physical hazard

A physical hazard is a naturally occurring process that has the potential to create loss or damage. Physical hazards include earthquakes, floods, and tornadoes. Physical hazards often have both human and natural elements. Flood problems can be affected by the natural elements of climate fluctuations and storm frequency, and by human elements, like land drainage and building in a flood plain. Another physical hazard, ultra-violet light, naturally occurs from solar radiation, and has been uses for industrial purposes; however, overexposure can lead to cancer, skin burns, and tissue damage.

Psychosocial hazard

Psychological or Psychosocial hazards are hazards that affect the psychological well-being of people, including their ability to participate in a work environment among other people. Psychosocial hazards are related to the way work is designed, organized and managed, as well as the economic and social contexts of work and are associated with psychiatric, psychological and/or physical injury or illness. Linked to psychosocial risks are issues such as occupational stress and workplace violence which are recognized internationally as major challenges to occupational health and safety.

Ergonomic hazard

Ergonomic hazards are physical conditions that may pose risk of injury to the musculoskeletal system, such as the muscles or ligaments of the lower back, tendons or nerves of the hands/wrists, or bones surrounding the knees. Ergonomic hazards include things such as awkward or extreme postures, whole-body or hand/arm vibration, poorly designed tools, equipment, or workstations, repetitive motion, and poor lighting. Ergonomic hazards occur in both occupational and non-occupational settings such as in workshops, building sites, offices, home, school, or public spaces and facilities.

Based on origin

Natural hazards

Natural hazards such as earthquakes, floods, volcanoes and tsunami have threatened people, society, the natural environment, and the built environment, throughout history.

Methods to reduce risk from natural hazards include construction of high-risk facilities away from areas with high risk, engineering redundancy, emergency reserve funds, purchasing relevant insurance, and the development of operational recovery plans.

Anthropogenic hazards

Hazards due to human behaviour and activity.

Technological hazards

Hazards due to technology, and therefore a sub-class of anthropogenic hazards.

Sociological hazard

Hazards due to sociological causes, also a sub-class of anthropogenic hazards

Based on effects

Health hazards: Hazards affecting the health of exposed persons, usually having an acute or chronic illness as the consequence. Fatality would not normally be an immediate consequence.

Safety hazards: Hazards affecting the safety of individuals, usually having an injury or immediate fatality as the consequence of an incident

Economic hazards: Hazards affecting property, wealth and the economy.

Environmental hazards: Hazards affecting the environment, particularly the natural environment and ecosystems.

Hazard Identification

A hazard is a possible source of injury, illness, loss or damage, and is potentially a problem, If you are exposed to the hazard, there is a risk associated, if not, there is no risk, so no problem. To manage risk, the hazards must first be identified. There are hazards which are normally encountered in the course of an occupation, and hazards which are specific to a particular operation or site.

Hazard controls

Once identified, hazards that present a significant risk must be controlled.

Hazard controls can be divided into 5 categories based on their relative effectiveness at reducing risk. They are listed here in descending level of preference based on general effectiveness. The existence of five categories implies that the preferred methods are not always possible or reasonably practicable, and less preferred controls must frequently be used. The responsible person is required to apply due diligence to using the most appropriate controls for a given set of conditions, and the employee (diver) should understand the process sufficiently to recognise when it is done correctly.

Elimination: See also: Wikipedia:Hazard elimination; Eliminating the hazard — physically removing it — is the most effective risk control and the preferred method when reasonably practicable. When a hazard is removed, the associated risk is also removed as there is no exposure. For example, if a job must be done underwater, the hazard can be eliminated by prefabricating the work on land and using a ROV to do the installation. There is no risk to divers as no diving is required.

Substitution

Substitution, the second most effective hazard control, is similar to elimination. It involves replacing something that is hazardous with something that is less hazardous. To be an effective control, the replacement product must not produce another hazard, or the overall hazard must be significantly reduced.

For example;

replacing trichloroethane with water based detergents for oxygen cleaning.
replacing nitrogen with helium in the breathing gas reduces the risks of accidents due to impaired judgement from nitrogen narcosis, and reduces work of breathing, but increases the risk of heat loss, which must be managed by active diver heating. The overall risk is significantly reduced.

Engineering controls

The third most effective means of controlling hazards is engineered controls. These do not eliminate hazards, but rather isolate people from hazards. Capital costs of engineered controls tend to be higher than less effective controls in the hierarchy, however they may reduce future costs. "Enclosure and isolation" creates a physical barrier between personnel and hazards, such as

Using remotely controlled equipment or installing guards to prevent access to moving machinery parts.
Air filters remove contaminants from compressed air.
A wet bell or stage may be used to transport divers and equipment through the splash zone and to control rate of ascent.
Lock-out and tag-out are a combination of engineering and administrative controls, where the lock-out is an engineering control of the hazard, and tag-out is an administrative control ensuring that the lock-out is effective.

Administrative controls

Administrative controls are changes to the way people work. Examples of administrative controls include procedures, employee training, and installation of signs and warning labels (such as those in the Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System). Administrative controls do not remove hazards, but limit or prevent people's exposure to the hazards, such as:

Diving at slack tide when currents are minimum,
Controlled rate of ascent with stops to avoid decompression sickness,
Open channel voice communication provides the supervisor with feedback on the condition of the diver, which reduces the risk of the diver getting into difficulties that no-one notices.

Administrative controls may limit workers' exposures by scheduling shorter work times or by implementing other procedures. These control measures are limited because the hazard itself is not actually removed or reduced. They can be difficult to implement and maintain and are not a particularly reliable way to reduce exposure. Methods of administrative control may include:

Scheduling operations for times when the risk is lowest.
Job-rotation schedules that limit the amount of time an individual worker is exposed to hazard.

Work practices are also a form of administrative controls. Some elements of safe work practices include:

Developing and implementing standard operating procedures.
Training and education of employees in safe working procedures.
Establishing and maintaining good housekeeping programs.
Maintaining equipment in safe working order, and periodic testing and re-certification of critical equipment.
Training and preparing staff for emergency response to incidents.

Use of checklists to ensure that critical steps are not missed or performed out of sequence.

Personal protective equipment

Personal protective equipment (PPE) includes gloves, overalls, respirators, hard hats, safety glasses, high-visibility clothing, and safety footwear. PPE is the least effective means of controlling hazards because of the high potential for damage to render PPE ineffective. Additionally, some PPE, increase physiological effort to complete a task and may require medical examinations to ensure workers can use the PPE without risking their health. Personal diving equipment such as diving helmets, bailout sets, surface supplied gas and diving suits are all forms of personal protective equipment used by divers, because sometimes all the other controls fail to eliminate the hazard, and the diver must go under the water to do the job.

The specific type of PPE depends on the assessed risk. For some diving operations a wet suit and scuba may be appropriate, but for others a hazmat rated dry suit sealed to a helmet with reclaim gas return system may be necessary.
Personal protective equipment may fail, and in cases where the failure may be immediately life-threatening, backup equipment must be ready, and procedures and skills for managing the failure must be in place.
Personal protective equipment is expensive, often uncomfortable, cumbersome or hazardous in another way and seldom 100% reliable. It is generally the last resort.

Risk assessment

Five steps can be identified in the process of risk assessment and management

Establish the context and environment
Identify the hazards that apply to the context. These may be internal and external hazards
Analyze the contributing and leading factors: the extent of exposure, frequency of exposure, vulnerability of the population or system.
Evaluate and prioritize the risks requiring further action
Identify the range of options to address the risk & implement the best choice using available resources

There are differences between the ways that long term and short term risk is analysed, and with how health risk is assessed compared with risk to safety. Health risks are often long term risks with multiple exposures but this is not always the case.

Two ways to manage a given risk:

Risk reduction is ways that the risk of an incident can be reduced, It is not always possible to reduce the risk to zero. The requirement is for the risk to be as low as reasonably possible (ALARP) The conditions of section 8. General duties of employers to their employees of the OHSA apply.
Mitigation is ways of reducing the consequences if an incident occurs.

Action taken should be appropriate to the level of risk.

There are several levels and stages of risk assessment.

Project risk assessment

This includes the risk assessments for a diving project done as part of the planning process. These are documented and become part of the references of the project plan.

Job Safety Analyses

These are risk assessments for specific work procedures, using specified equipment. A JSA may change if either procedures or equipment change significantly. Job safety analysis is discussed in detail at Commercial diving/Basic diving operation management and planning#Job safety analysis

Examples?

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Toolbox talks

Before starting a specific operation, the team should be briefed on the work to be done and the associated hazards, possible consequences, the risk associated with them, the measures to be taken to reduce the risks and the mitigation planned in case of the possible incidents occurring. This is called a toolbox talk in the industry, but may have other names. The purpose of the toolbox talk is communication between all the team members. If you don't understand something that may involve you, this is a good time to ask questions.

Situational awareness

The people exposed to the risks and involved in the operation provide the last line of risk assessment and d monitoring. Every member of the team can prevent incidents by remaining alert and aware of what is going on around them. This is variously referred to as situational awareness, last minute risk assessment, staying alert, looking out for the team ??? etc. Never assume that because the risks have been assessed to be acceptably low, that nothing can go wrong. Complacency can earn you a Darwin award. If you see a situation developing that looks like it might get out of control, do something about it. Safety is everyone's concern, and the life you save may be your own.

Hazard ratings

No specific references found from DoL.

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Material safety data sheets

A material safety data sheet (MSDS), safety data sheet (SDS) or product safety data sheet (PSDS) is an important component of product stewardship, occupational health and safety and spill-handling procedures. SDS formats can vary from source to source within a country depending on national requirements.

MSDSs are a widely used system for cataloging information on chemicals, chemical compounds, and chemical mixtures. SDS information may include instructions for the safe use and potential hazards associated with a particular material or product. The SDS should be available for reference in the area where the chemicals are being stored,transported or in use.

There is also a duty to properly label substances on the basis of physico-chemical, health or environmental risk. Labels can include hazard symbols.

An MSDS for a substance is not primarily intended for use by the general consumer, focusing instead on the hazards of working with the material in an occupational setting.

It is important to use an MSDS specific to both country and supplier, as the same product (e.g. paints sold under identical brand names by the same company) can have different formulations in different countries. The formulation and hazard of a product using a generic name may vary between manufacturers in the same country.

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Marking of hazards

Skull and crossbones, a common symbol for poison and other sources of lethal danger.

Hazard symbols or warning symbols are easily recognisable symbols designed to warn about hazardous materials, locations, or objects, The use of hazard symbols is often regulated by law and directed by standards organisations. Hazard symbols may appear with different colors, backgrounds, borders and supplemental information in order to specify the type of hazard and the level of threat (for example, toxicity classes). Warning symbols are used in many places in lieu of or addition to written warnings as they are quickly recognized (faster than reading a written warning) and more universally understood, as the same symbol can be recognized as having the same meaning to speakers of different languages.

Hazard symbols are commonly used on labels which may include associated hazard ratings for the material.

Housekeeping

In the context of industrial work, housekeeping is the process of keeping the workshop or site free of unnecessary hazards to personnel and equipment, usually achieved by removing non-essential equipment, and arranging essential equipment so that it does not get in the way of operations, or risk damage. Effective housekeeping can eliminate some hazards and reduce others, and can help get a job done safely and efficiently. Housekeeping involves site or work-space layout, designation and maintenance of walkways and access areas, setup and maintenance of of storage facilities, routine and on-site maintenance and minor repair of equipment, and is an important factor in accident and fire prevention. It includes removal of debris, spills waste and fire hazards, routing of hoses, pipes and cable to avoid interference and tripping hazards, stowage of equipment not in use, routine decontamination and general janitorial work. Effective housekeeping is an ongoing operation, though there are periods when it is more intense. A lot of time can be saved and damage to equipment avoided when there is a place for everything and each item is always in one of the appropriate places or traveling a short and unencumbered route between them. This is particularly important on a vessel where rough weather can cause badly stowed things to move around.

The benefits of good housekeeping include:

reduced handling of materials
improved control of equipment and materials
reduced damage to property and equipment
more effective use of space
fewer tripping and slipping accidents in clutter-free and spill-free work areas
Reduced fire hazards
reduced personal exposure to hazardous substances
more hygienic working conditions
more efficient cleanup and maintenance
more efficient janitorial work
improved morale and productivity

Housekeeping order is maintained not achieved. Cleaning and organization must be done regularly, not just at the end of the shift. Continuous housekeeping during the job can help to ensure that the site does not deteriorate to a hazardous condition which takes a lot of work to remedy, and that in the event of an emergency, the reaction can be optimal.

Employers are obliged to ensure a safe workplace by controlling hazards. Supervisors are responsible for ensuring that this happens, and employees must work in compliance with occupational health and safety laws, including the obligation to report hazards in the workplace and follow all internal workplace health and safety policies and procedures.

Personal protective equipment

Personal protective equipment (PPE) refers to protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other garments or equipment designed to protect the wearer's body from injury or infection. The hazards addressed by protective equipment include physical, electrical, heat, chemicals, biohazards, and airborne particulate matter. Protective equipment may be worn for job-related occupational safety and health purposes, as well as for sports and other recreational activities.

The purpose of personal protective equipment is to reduce employee exposure to hazards when engineering controls and administrative controls are not feasible or effective to reduce these risks to acceptable levels. PPE is needed when there are hazards present. PPE has the serious limitation that it does not eliminate the hazard at source and may result in employees being exposed to the hazard if the equipment fails.

Any item of PPE imposes a barrier between the wearer/user and the working environment. This can create additional strains on the wearer; impair their ability to carry out their work and create significant levels of discomfort. Any of these can discourage wearers from using PPE correctly, therefore placing them at risk of injury, ill-health or, under extreme circumstances, death. Good ergonomic design can help to minimise these barriers and can therefore help to ensure safe and healthy working conditions through the correct use of PPE.

Practices of occupational safety and health can use hazard controls and interventions to mitigate workplace hazards, which pose a threat to the safety and quality of life of workers. The hierarchy of hazard controls provides a policy framework which ranks the types of hazard controls in terms of absolute risk reduction. At the top of the hierarchy are elimination and substitution, which remove the hazard entirely or replace the hazard with a safer alternative. If elimination or substitution measures cannot apply, engineering controls and administrative controls, which seek to design safer mechanisms and coach safer human behavior, are implemented.

Personal protective equipment ranks last on the hierarchy of controls, as the workers are regularly exposed to the hazard, with a barrier of protection. The hierarchy of controls is important in acknowledging that, while personal protective equipment has tremendous utility, it is not the desired mechanism of control in terms of worker safety.

Types

Personal protective equipment can be categorized by the area or part of the body protected, by the types of hazard, and by the type of garment or accessory. A single item, for example boots, may provide multiple forms of protection: a steel toe cap and steel insoles for protection of the feet from crushing or puncture injuries, impervious rubber and lining for protection from water and chemicals, high reflectivity and heat resistance for protection from radiant heat, and high electrical resistivity for protection from electric shock. The protective attributes of each piece of equipment must be compared with the hazards expected to be found in the workplace. More breathable types of personal protective equipment may not lead to more contamination but do result in greater user satisfaction.

Respirators and breathing apparatus

Respirators serve to protect the user from breathing in contaminants in the air, thus preserving the health of one's respiratory tract. There are two main types of respirators. One type functions by filtering out chemicals and gases, or airborne particles, from the air breathed by the user. The filtration may be either passive or active (powered). Particulate respirators and gas masks are examples of this type of respirator. A second type protects users by providing clean, respirable gas from another source. This type firefighting breathing self contained breathing apparatus and underwater breathing apparatus. In work environments, respirators are relied upon when adequate ventilation is not available or other engineering control systems are not feasible or inadequate.

Skin and impact protection

Occupational skin diseases such as contact dermatitis, skin cancers, and other skin injuries and infections are the second-most common type of occupational disease and can be very costly. Skin hazards, which lead to occupational skin disease, can be classified into four groups. Chemical agents can come into contact with the skin through direct contact with contaminated surfaces, deposition of aerosols, immersion or splashes. Physical agents such as extreme temperatures and ultraviolet or solar radiation can be damaging to the skin over prolonged exposure or cause a breakdown in body temperature regulation. Mechanical trauma occurs in the form of friction, pressure, abrasions, lacerations and contusions. Biological agents such as parasites, microorganisms, plants and animals can have varied effects when exposed to the skin.

Any form of PPE that acts as a barrier between the skin and the agent of exposure can be considered skin protection. Because much work is done with the hands, gloves are an essential item in providing skin protection. Some examples of gloves commonly used as PPE include rubber gloves, cut-resistant gloves, chainsaw gloves and heat-resistant gloves.

Other than gloves, any other article of clothing or protection worn for a purpose serve to protect the skin. Lab coats for example, are worn to protect against potential splashes of chemicals. Face shields serve to protect one's face from potential impact hazards, chemical splashes or possible infectious fluid.

Eye protection

Eye injuries can happen through a variety of means. Most eye injuries occur when solid particles such as metal slivers, wood chips, sand or cement chips get into the eye. Smaller particles in smokes and larger particles such as broken glass also account for particulate matter-causing eye injuries. Blunt force trauma can occur to the eye when excessive force comes into contact with the eye. Chemical burns, biological agents, and thermal agents, from sources such as welding torches and ultraviolet light, also contribute to occupational eye injury.

While the required eye protection varies by occupation, the safety provided can be generalized. Safety glasses provide protection from external debris, and should provide side protection via a wrap-around design or side shields.

Goggles provide better protection than safety glasses, and are effective in preventing eye injury from chemical splashes, impact, dusty environments and welding. Goggles with high air flow should be used to prevent fogging.
Face shields provide additional protection and are worn over the standard eyewear; they also provide protection from impact, chemical, and blood-borne hazards.
Full-facepiece respirators are considered the best form of eye protection when respiratory protection is needed as well, but may be less effective against potential impact hazards to the eye.
Eye protection for welding is shaded to different degrees, depending on the specific operation.

Hearing protection

Industrial noise is often overlooked as an occupational hazard, as it is not visible to the eye.

PPE for hearing protection consists of earplugs and earmuffs. Workers who are regularly exposed to noise levels above the recommendation must be furnished hearing protection by the employer, as they are a low-cost intervention.

High visibility clothing

High-visibility (HV) clothing, a type of personal protective equipment (PPE), is any clothing worn that has highly reflective properties or a colour that is easily discernible from any background. Yellow waistcoats worn by emergency services are a common example. Occupational wearers of clothing with high-visibility features include railway and highway workers, airport workers, or other places where workers are near moving vehicles or in dark areas. Retro-reflective strips increase visibility from the position of the light source. Offshore survival suits, life-jackets and many protective overalls use retro-reflective strips and bright contrasting colours such as red, orange and yellow to increase visibility. Improved visibility of the wearer can reduce risk of other people colliding with the wearer or not noticing them moving into a hazard zone where the observer is working. When in the sea, high visibility clothing improves the chances of being seen by rescuers.

Protective clothing and ensembles

A complete PPE ensemble worn during high pressure cleaning work

This form of PPE is all-encompassing and refers to the various suits and uniforms worn to protect the user from harm. Personal diving equipment, welding gear, survival suits and hazmat suits would fall into this category.

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Reference to statutory requirements

Safe lifting of loads

Manual handling of loads

Manual handling of loads is the lifting, holding, carrying, moving, lowering and placing of objects by workers using the strength and dexterity of the human body.

Manual lifting tasks with high loads or frequencies may cause musculoskeletal disorders such as lower back pain. Acute trauma such as cuts, sprains or fractures due to accidents may also result from manual lifting work. Heavy loads, awkward postures, repetitive movements of arms, legs and back or previous or existing injury can increase the risk of injury.

Warming up before performing relatively heavy lifting can reduce the risk of injury.

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Rigging and lifting

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Safety management systems

Emergency response plans

Reasonably foreseeable emergencies that are not covered by standard emergency procedures should be allowed for in diving operation planning. These are generally plans which would vary depending on the circumstances of the operation. Examples include:

Lost diver: At some sites this is not possible, at others the procedures required for search and recovery may vary considerably depending on the geography of the site and the mode of diving.
Man overboard: Procedures will largely depend on the vessel or platform, and the personnel responsible for responding, which may not be the dive team.
Deteriorating environmental conditions: Some sites may be subject to unusual environmental hazards. Risk may be to the diver, or the whole team.
Job-specific emergencies: Some operations involve hazardous materials or equipment.

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Safety drills

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Medical emergency response

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Emergency evacuation procedures

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Storage, handling and transportation of dangerous goods

Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1993 regulates the following related matters:

Provisions for safety equipment and facilities
General safety regulations detailing protective clothing and first aid requirements
National standards regulating pressure vessels such as gas cylinders and decompression chambers
Regulations for hazardous chemical substances
National standards on packaging, transportation and storing
Transportation of explosives
Safety signs

The National Road Traffic Act of 1996 regulates the following related matters:

Transportation of goods in transit-containers
Transportation of explosives and radioactive substances –also governed by 2 other acts
National standards for list of dangerous goods

The Standards Act of 2008 gives effect to the South African National Standards and regulates the following:

The development, promotion and conformity of the South African National Standards (SANS)

There has been selective incorporation of aspects of the Globally Harmonised System (GHS) of classification and labelling of chemicals into South African legislation. A MSDS is included in the requirements of Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993 (Act No.85 of 1993) Regulation 1179 dated 25 August 1995.

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Company safety culture

Safety culture is the attitude, beliefs, perceptions and values that employees share in relation to safety in the workplace. Safety culture is a part of organizational culture, and has been described by the phrase "the way we do things around here".

Studies have found that workplace related disasters are a result of a breakdown in an organization’s policies and procedures that were established to deal with safety, and that the breakdown flows from inadequate attention being paid to safety issues.

A good safety culture can be promoted by senior management commitment to safety, realistic practices for handling hazards, continuous organisational learning, and care and concern for hazards shared across the workforce.

The safety culture of an organization and its safety management system are closely related, but the relationship is not simply that the safety culture complies with the formal safety management system. The safety culture of an organization cannot be created or changed overnight; it develops over time as a result of history, work environment, the workforce, health and safety practices, and management leadership. An organization’s safety culture is ultimately reflected in the way safety is addressed in its workplaces. An organization's safety management system is not a set of paper policies and procedures, but how those policies and procedures are implemented in the workplace, which will be influenced by the safety culture of the organization or workplace. The culture and style of management is significant.

Four characteristics of a robust and effective safety culture:

Senior management commitment to safety
Realistic and flexible customs and practices for handling both well-defined and ill-defined hazards
Continuous organisational learning through practices such as feedback systems, monitoring, and analysis
Care and concern for hazards and risk shared throughout the workforce

Only two of those factors fall within a management system, and leadership as well as management is necessary.

Statutory requirements

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Health and safety representatives and committees

Representatives

The employer is responsible for heath and safety at the workplace. The health and safety representatives are there to monitor and report on health and safety. They are intended to provide both the employer and employees with information regarding occupational health and safety. Health and safety representatives have direct access to the inspectorate.

Their duties are to monitor, investigate and report on health and safety matters, accompany inspectors during inspections, and attend health and safety committee meetings.

They have the right to attend incident investigations and enquiries, visit incidents sites and attend inspections, inspect documents related to health and safety matters, conduct health and safety audits and inspections, identify potential hazards, risks and dangers, investigate incidents and complaints, examine causes of incidents, participate in internal audits, make recommendations regarding health and safety, review effectiveness of health and safety measures, and advise the committee and the employer. They may be accompanied by a technical advisor if approved by the employer.

Section 17(1) of the OHS Act requires all employers who have more than 20 employees to formally appoint health and safety representatives for that workplace. Workplaces which are not shops or offices must have at least 1 representative for every 50 workers or part thereof, but an inspector may order an employer to appoint more. Representatives must be full-time employees who are familiar with the workplace. It is the employer’s duty to ensure that representatives are properly trained during working hours to perform their duties as health and safety representatives.

A representative shall not incur any civil liability if he failed to do anything which he may do or is required to do.

Health and safety committee

The Occupational Health and Safety Act requires employers to appoint a health and safety committee if they are required to have two or more health and safety representatives

The employer’s duties are to decide on the number of health and safety committee members; appoint the committee members; ensure that committees meet at least once every 3 months and to attend the meetings.

The health and safety committees are required to make recommendations to employers and inspectors, and keep records of them; and to discuss, report and keep records of incidents in which someone is killed, injured, or becomes ill as a consequence of the work environment.

Incident and accident reporting

Reportable incidents

The following are reportable accidents in terms of the OHSA Act

A person dies, loses consciousness, suffers loss of all or part of a limb
A person becomes injured or becomes ill to such a degree that he is likely to die or suffer permanent physical defect or likely to unable to work for 14 days or unable to resume his previous job
The health or safety of any person is endangered by:

Dangerous substance spilled
Uncontrolled release of a substance under pressure
Equipment failure resulting in uncontrolled flying objects
Machinery out of control

Who to report to

Police for the death of any person
Department of Labour Inspector for diving related incidents (form WCL2 for injury) (reportable accidents)

Recording of accidents

Collect and record all relevant information
Secure equipment possibly involved in accident.
Make no unnecessary adjustments or changes to the equipment.
Record readings and settings on all gauges and displays. Take photos whenever possible
If gas is escaping from breathing apparatus close valves and record the number of turns to close for each valve.
Bag and label or store equipment where it is safe from accidental adjustment.
Complete an incident report form and keep a copy

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