Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Self-concept

Self-Concept: The unification of self-schemas to form a sense of self Motivation & Self-Concept This user is a participant in the Motivation and emotion unit, 2010. See also: Textbook This page is an e-portfolio. Also see other participants' pages. Introduction - Multi-media - Definitions - Introduce topic - Outline structure of e-chapter

Self-Concept Development Biological Elements Brain Structure Elements Socio-cultural Elements Psychological Elements

Self-Concept and Motivation Introduction The Attribution Theory provides a foundational understanding for the mechanisms behind motivated behaviour and self-concept. The theory asserts that humans have a tendency to attribute causality to events, people and situations. This behaviour enables an individual to develop a coherent view of the world and maintain some level of control, consistency and predictability (Graham & Folkes, 1990). It is therefore important to keep in mind that each of the theories detailed in this section stem from the underlying need to attribute causality. For example, the Self-Evaluation Maintenance Model suggests negative threats to an individual’s self-concept and self-esteem motivates social comparison and defensive strategies. The perceived threat relates to an individual’s appraisal that their self-schemas are suddenly unstable and uncontrollable (in addition to feeling inadequate) (Pemberton & Sedikides, 2001). Thus, a fundamental motivation within self-concept development and maintenance involves the preservation of stable, accurate and positive self-schemas. Self-concept motivates thoughts Cognitive Dissonance Self-concept motivates emotions Self-Discrepancy Theory The Self-Discrepancy Theory addresses the motivational and emotional properties triggered from actual, ideal and ought self discrepancies (Crisp & Turner, 2010). The actual self refers to an individual’s current self-concept, the ideal self to an individual’s idyllic self-concept and the ought self to what an individual’s perceives their self-concept should encompass due to obligation or responsibility (McDaniel & Grice, 2008). Discrepancies consequently arise when the selves conflict which triggers the psychological discomfort outlined in the attribution theory due to the inconsistency and instability of one’s self-concept. Discrepancies stimulate negative emotional reactions including dejected-related emotions in response to actual-ideal inconsistencies and agitation-related emotions in response to actual-ought inconsistencies (Boldero, Moretti, Bell & Francis, 2005). Self-discrepancies has also been proposed as an indirect contributor to suicidal ideation, mood disorders and anxiety disorders (Cornette, Strauman, Abramson & Busch, 2009; McDaniel & Grice, 2008). Pop music provides illustrative examples of self-discrepancies in contemporary Western society. Consider the following examples: 'Empty' by The Cranberries 'Perfect' by Simple Plan 'Don't let me get me' by Pink "All my plans fell though my hands, They fell though my hands on me. All my dreams it suddenly seems, It suddenly seems, Empty" http://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/cranberries/empty.html Tired of being compared to damn Britney Spears She's so pretty, that just ain't me "Don't let me get me I'm my own worst enemy Its bad when you annoy yourself So irritating Don't wanna be my friend no more I wanna be somebody else" http://www.lyrics007.com/Pink%20Lyrics/Don't%20Let%20Me%20Get%20Me%20Lyrics.html "Hey Dad look at me Think back and talk to me Did I grow up according To plan? Do you think I’m wasting My time doing things I Wanna do? But it hurts when you Disapprove all along" http://www.lyrics007.com/Simple%20Plan%20Lyrics/Perfect%20Lyrics.html Empty by The Cranberries firstly illustrates an actual-ideal discrepancy. The persona expresses plans that they had forseen for themselves which end up dissolving. Thus, they have not achieved aspects of their ideal self-concept. Consequently, the persona expresses emptiness, a dejection-related emotion which reflects the self-discrepancy theory (Boldero et al., 2005). Secondly, Don't let me get me by Pink offers an example of an actual-ought discrepancy. The persona conveys the psychological discomfort experienced from believing they need to achieve the standards of celebrities, such as Britney Spears. Literature highlights the impact of the media and pressures to attain Western ideals including fame, achievement and wealth which consequently triggers psychological discomfort, particularly in the youth (Dittmar, 2009; Johnson & Krueger, 2006; Sanchez & Crocker, 2005). In response to the persona's actual-ought discrepancy, they express feelings of irriation, which also reflects the self-discrepancy theory (McDaniel & Grice, 2008). Lastly, Perfect by Simple Plan provides a combination of an actual-ideal and actual-ought discrepancies. The persona communicates a perceived pressure to fulfill their father's expectations of what self-schemas they should possess (actual-ought). Furthermore, there is a discrepancy between what the father percieves as idyllic as compared to the persona (actual-ideal). Consequently, the persona conveys a mixture of frustration (agitation-related emotions) and sadness (dejection-related emotions) which reflects the self-discrepancy theory (Boldero et al., 2005). Self-Discrepancy Theory: In Focus File:Body dysmorphiic disorder.jpg Body Dysmorphic Disorder causes the sufferer to distort physical features Body Dysmorphic Disorder is a somatoform disorder which is characterised by a preoccupation with an imagined or slight physical defect, such as the size of shape of the nose (Buhlmann & Wilhelm, 2004). The disorder leads to impaired functioning and distress and is commonly comorbid with other disorders such as major depression, social phobia or anxiety (Durand & Barlow, 2010). Body dysmorphic disorder has been associated with the self-discrepancy theory as research suggests sufferers demonstrate inconsistencies between their actual-ideal and actual-ought selves (e.g. Veale, Kinderman, Riley & Lambrou, 2003). Specifically, one participant recorded on a 10-point scale that their breasts were too saggy (10-points; actual self), they their ideal breasts would be firm, high and with small nipples (10-points; ideal self), and their ought breasts should also be firm, high and with small nipples (10-points; ought self). Thus, body dysmorphic disorder is intimately related and intensified by discrepancies between what a sufferer perceives they should, ideally and actually look like. Sufferers recognise inconsistencies within their self-concept, stimulated by dejecting or agitated emotions. Consequently, a preoccupation with ‘fixing’, checking or avoidance of the defect is evident as sufferers attempt to cope with the discrepancy. Self-concept motivates behaviours Self-Evaluation Maintenance Model Figure 1.1. Factors Contributing to Social Reflection The Self-Evaluation Maintenance Model posits that challenges to one's self-concept and self-esteem motivates the engagement in either social comparison or social reflection depending on how the individual appraises the situation (Crisp & Turner, 2010). Social comparison involves the process of comparing oneself to another and subsequently using that analysis to define and evaluate their/your self-schemas (Pemberton & Sedikides, 2001). Comparisons often involve either upward comparisons where a person compares themselves to someone perceived to be superior to them or downward comparisons where a person compares themselves to someone they perceive as inferior to them (Crisp & Turner, 2010). For example, social comparison is common amongst close work colleagues as it provides explicit performance judgments in the form of work evaluations, promotions or bonuses (Tesser, Millar & Moore, 1988). Alternatively, social reflection refers to the bolstering of one’s self-esteem and development of the self-concept through internalizing the achievements of others (Pemberton & Sedikides, 2001). For example, parents often engage in social reflection where they ‘bask in reflected glory’ from the achievements of their child such as sporting or academic accomplishments (Hannawa & Spitzberg, 2009). Figure 1.2. Factors Contributing to Social Comparison Two key factors are argued to determine whether social comparison or social reflection is utilized, as detailed in Figures 1.1 and 1.2. However, recent research suggests performance, closeness and information are additional determinants (Beach et al., 1996; Pemberton & Sedikides, 2001). Specifically, individuals are more likely to engage in social comparison if they perceive their past or future performance is threatened by others and/or if they are provided with performance information about the other person which suggests competence (Pemberton & Sedikides, 2001). Similarly, individuals are more likely to engage in social comparison if they possess a close relationship to the other person, as opposed to being strangers (Beach et al., 1996). Some research goes further by arguing that all other determinants of behaviour are irrelevant if the comparison is with a stranger (e.g. Tesser et al., 1988). This is because strangers do not directly implicate an individual’s self-concept or self-esteem as they are separate from one’s micro world and therefore hold no value in relation to one’s social environment. Note: Self-concept refers to the mental representations of oneself while self-esteem defines the subjective negative or positive appraisal of oneself (Crisp & Turner, 2010). Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs: An illustrative example of Social Comparison Possibly not the most accurate representation of the fairest one of all! The well-known 1937 fairytale provides an illustrative example of social comparison through two characters; The Queen and the Magic Mirror. In an attempt to maintain self-verification and self-enhancement, The Queen frequently asks the Magic Mirror (which can speak nothing but the truth): The Magic Mirror Mirror, Mirror on the wall, Who is the fairest one of all? You, O Queen, are the fairest one of all Thus, The Queen is able to maintain a stable and consistent self-concept through feedback from the Magic Mirror. However, as the tale unfolds, The Queen asks once again and is subsequently denied the fairest one of all as depicted in this clip Consequently, The Queen engages in social comparison as she perceives Snow White as a threat to her relevant domain (fairest one of all) and becomes uncertain of her abilities (thus, formulates an evil plan). Furthermore, The Queen perceives Snow White as a threat to her future performance and status, holds a somewhat close relationship with Snow White (as she is her maid) and possesses explicit information that Snow White is ‘fairer’ than her (Dirks, 2010). The Self-Evaluation Maintenance Model subsequently posits that social reflection or comparison triggers motivated behaviour (Deckers, 2004). Social reflection motivates the person to engage in positive thoughts about themselves (they are a part of the success), energises positive emotions (such as joy and pride in the achievement) and directs positive behaviour (such as celebratory actions). Alternatively, social comparison motivates four main defence strategies which aim to protect and maintain a positive self-concept, as displayed in Table 1.1.(Crisp & Turner, 2010). <centre>Table 1.1. Strategies to Combat the Effects of Social Comparison<centre> Strategy Example 1. Exaggerate the abilities of the other person "My work colleague, Sue, is beyond intelligent - She went to Harvard University so it's unrealistic to compare myself to her" 2. Distance yourself from the other person "I don't particularly agree with Sue's decisions anyway so I'm applying for a department transfer" 3. Devalue the importance of the domain "Sue is far too work-orientated - At least I have a superior level of fitness and busy social life" 4. Compare yourself to a different person "I am more competent at my job than my other co-workers"

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References Beach, S. R. H., Tesser, A., Mendolia, M., Anderson, P., Crelai, R., Whitaker, D., & Fincham, F. D. (1996). Self-evaluation maintenance in marriage: Toward a performance ecology of the marital relationship. Journal of Family Psychology, 10, 379-396. doi: 10.1037/0893-3200.10.4.379 Brown, G. L., Mangelsdorf, S. C., Neff, C., Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J., & Frosch, C. A. (2009). Young children’s self-concepts: Associations with child temperament, mothers’ and fathers’ parenting, and triadic family interaction. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly: Journal of Developmental Psychology, 55, 184-216. doi: 10.1353/mpq.0.0019 Deckers, L. (2004). Motivation: Biological, psychological, and environmental (2nd ed.). Boston, USA: Pearson Education. Dirks, T. (2010). Snow White and the seven dwarfs (1937). Filmsite. Retrieved October 28, 2010 from http://www.filmsite.org/snow.html Dittmar, H. (2009). How do ‘body perfect’ ideals in the media have a negative impact onbody image and behaviors? Factors and processes related to self and identity. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28, 1-8. doi: 10.1521/jscp.2009.28.1.1 Graham, S., & Folkes, V. S. (1990). Attribution theory: applications to achievement, mental health, and interpersonal conflict. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum Associates. Hannawa, A. F., & Spitzberg, B. H. (2009). "My child can beat your child": Toward a measure of prental self-evaluation maintenance (PSEM). Journal of Family Communication, 9, 23-42. doi: 10.1080/15267430802561584 Johnson, W., & Krueger, R. F. (2006). How money buys happiness: Genetic and environmental processes linking finances and life satisfaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 680-691. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.90.4.680 Pemberton, M., & Sedikides, C. (2001). When do individuals help close others improve? The role of information diagnosticity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 234-246. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.81.2.234 Sanchez, D. T., & Crocker, J. (2005). How investment in gender ideals affects well-being: The role of external contingencies of self-worth. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 63-77. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6402.2005.00169.x Tesser, A., Millar, M., & Moore, J. (1988). Some affective consequences of social comparison and reflection processes: The pain and pleasure of being close. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 49-61. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.54.1.49 von Wyl, A., Perren, S., Braune-Krickan, K., Simoni, H., Stadlmayr, W., Burgin, D., & von Klitzing, K. (2008). How early triadic family processes predict children’s strengths and difficulties at age three. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 5, 466-491. doi: 10.1080/17405620600989701