Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Positive illusions about the self

Positive illusions about the self:
How can positive illusions about the self contribute to personal effectiveness?

Multimedia presentation (3 min)

Overview

"The idea that positive illusions are in the service of self-esteem virtually requires that they stay in check. If one develops substantially unrealistic expectations regarding the future that greatly exceed what one is actually able to accomplish, then one is set up for failure and disappointment, leading to lower self-esteem." - Shelley E. Taylor (1991).

Positive illusions are favourable attributes and attitudes an individual perceives about themselves (Taylor & Armor, 1996). Positive illusions can influence wellbeing, better standards of living, and limit hardships of mental health and stressors.

Personal effectiveness manifests as personal goals and the utilisation of skills and capabilities that make you who you are (Demerouti et al., 2011). This includes; talents, strengths, skills and time. How you manage yourself impacts your personal effectiveness and most importantly; how you think and feel. Positive illusions allow an individual to perceive something positively and, by doing this, the given situation is interpreted as however an individual desires. The overall concept is that through positive illusions, you allow yourself to have a positive outlook on life and increases your personal effectiveness, eliminating issues relating to self-esteem or self failure. This book chapter will assist readers in changing their ways of negative thinking. This topic is relatable to all as it will help promote strategies to better connect with yourself and your personal goals.

Case study: Sarah was always a positive and optimistic, although through Sarah’s high school experience, she constantly felt self-conscious about her image. She felt ongoing pressures and entertained negative illusions and thoughts about her appearance. This led to a lack of self-esteem and confidence. Suddenly, she began to lack in all departments, including motivation to excel in her grades, lacking a positive attitude towards sporting events and she even began to isolate from her friends. Sarah didn’t know how to change her ways, but she knew she wanted to.

Focus questions: Does positive illusions about the self affect personal effectiveness? How does positive illusions about the self contribute to wellbeing ? Can positive illusions about the self decrease chances of negative body image or body dysmorphia?

What are positive illusions?

Figure 1. Positive Illusions forces individuals to think in a positive and favourable nature which can lead to self-enhancement.

Positive illusions allow people to portray favourable attitudes and perspectives with the intention of self-enhancement. Although these idolised perceptions may be exaggerated and unrealistic, positive illusions acts as a coping mechanism for stressful events (Taylor & Armor, 1996). This confirms to an individual that they are able to gain control of their own thoughts and tame what is negative. Whilst feeling overly negative can influence stressors, positive illusions replace the discomfort with affirmations to challenge negative thoughts and influence one's wellbeing. Shelley Taylor wrote a book to expose how the human mind creates positive illusions for individuals to cope, and generate optimistic thoughts and feelings (Taylor & Armor, 1996). This exposes the contrast between negative thinking and positive illusions towards difficult situations. Taylor and Brown (1988) propose that positive illusions promote psychological wellbeing, higher motivation and greater success. This increases motivation towards future goals. Colvin and Block (1994) suggest that positive illusions can be taken 'too seriously' and create unrealistic goals. An example of this is people thinking they can make the sun rise. Although it is said one should be optimistic, this mindset can become problematic and cause an individual to disconnect from the importance and purpose of positive illusions and thinking.

Positive illusions and wellbeing

Taylor and Brown (1994) proposed that entertaining positive illusions about the self is key to maintaining good mental health. Ultimately, mental health can be driven by how you see yourself and perceive the world (Colvin & Block, 1944). Through this, positive illusions can challenge an individual's way of thinking and create a positive bias. For example, an individual may use manifestation and affirmation to convince themselves ' i am good enough' 'today will be a good day'. This manipulates the mind into thinking something positive regardless of whether the person believes it. Through this, mindfulness is strengthened which increases the ability to regulate emotions, focus attention and decrease stress.

Self-verification theory

Self-verification theory proposes that people idolise the idea of outsiders viewing them as they view themselves (Swann Jr. & Talaifar, 2017). This can heighten self-esteem as individuals may fantasise their appearance to be promptly how they wish to look and become dependent on others' thoughts and approvals. Although this can be unrealistic, some people prefer feedback that confirms their pre-existing self. By gaining approval of their realistic self, feelings of completion can arise which enhances confidence. This is particularly important in adolescence, as they tend to experience the most self-doubt, mental stressors and negative experiences of identity exploration (Erikson & Erikson, 2012). Individuals may choose to create positive illusions about themselves to act as protection from negative opinions about their realistic self. Therefore, when choosing to comply with unrealistic visions or exaggerated perceptions of yourself, an individual may build confidence as they will believe their own thoughts. This will enhance one’s wellbeing as self-love is hard to comprehend and once fulfilled, it creates gratitude and satisfaction.   See figure 2.

Positive illusions and relationships

Figure 2. How self concept change and self-verification theory interrelate with self-views.

By adopting positive illusions and feeling happy within yourself, creating intimate relationships may be facile due to the fantasied happiness one chooses to feel. Murray and colleagues (2011) indicate that in an intimate relationship, partners tend to idolise each other and adopt to an infatuation stage. With positive illusions, rather than motivate fantasised perceptions of the self, one may motivate positive illusions towards their partner. By doing this in a healthy dynamic, partners may feel constant giddy, pleasure and excitement. However, when over compensated, positive illusions can also be used negatively. For example, relationships with natures of abuse and trauma, the victim may find themselves focusing harshly on the fantasised illusions they have created in their own mind. This may maintain personal effectiveness as in their own mind, everything is considered positive, although this is not the case. It is discussed that how we view ourselves impacts how other people view us. Individuals tend to experience avoidance to any form of intimate connections if they experience a in lack of self-esteem and self-love (Murray et al., 2011). This can lead to fear of commitment which negatively impacts personal effectiveness. Therefore, individuals may become resentful and think negative about all relationships. Without positive illusions and self-love, individuals will fail to understand their worth and are unable to build trust within themselves and their partners.

What is personal effectiveness?

Personal effectiveness identifies commonalities to encompass your personality which includes personal goals, utilisation of skills, beliefs and morals and one’s capabilities (Demerouti et al., 2011). This concept creates ultimate satisfaction as each individual is in control of their own success and personal fulfilment. It is proven that individuals with good personal effectiveness in turn strive to achieve more goals, advance their careers and inhibit growth development (Demerouti et al., 2011). This benefits individuals as they gain awareness of who they are based on the belief system they have created for themselves. When demonstrating personal effectiveness, the progression that arises can result in heightened confidence which helps eliminate stressors. When individuals become more aware of the person they intend to be, self-love can grow. In relation to positive illusions about the self, this is beneficial towards personal effectiveness as positive illusions allow individuals to gain heightened motivation drive and perseverance when dealing with hardships (Makridakis & Moleskis, 2015). This is crucial to improve positive thinking and our psychological mood.

Identity crisis

When struggling to discover one's identity, it is crucial to distinguish the different types of identity deficits. Firstly, motivation crises (when the individual lacks guidance, goal direction, personal interests and values) and secondly, legitimation crises (when the individual has conflicting behavioural imperatives and lack of confidence) (Baumeister et al., 1985). Motivational crises can arise when personal effectiveness is not met and the individual experiences isolation and identity confusion. Legitimation crises are prominent if an individual has a negative mindset and thinking pattern, which results in poor behaviour choices. With lack of positive illusions, an individual is forced to perceive negative views about themselves leading to severe stress (Erikson & Erikson, 2012). This impacts one’s identity as individuals may become resentful of who are they wishing to be in comparison to who they are, which negatively disrupts their wellbeing.

Erikson's theory of psychosocial development

Through Erikson's model of psychosocial development , stage 5 is dedicated to identity vs confusion (Kidwell, et al., 1995). This stage discusses the issues with developing a sense of self through ones beliefs, goals and values (Waterman, 1988). This results in asking yourself questions such as "who am I?" and "how do I fit in?". This can be quite stressful and overwhelming to deal with. This leads to self-esteem issues when not dealt with correctly. Erikson's theory of identity exploration is associated with ego strength, mood swings, rebelliousness and heightened physical complaints (Kidwell et al., 1995). Positive illusions are overlooked when stressed, which leads people to adapt negatively to change and promote feelings of self-doubt. A study was conducted by Kidwell and colleagues (1995) highlighted the experiences faced by those progressing through this stage. Results showed that adolescents who were actively engaged in identity exploration behaved in self-doubt, confusion and reduced ego strength (Kidwell et al., 1995).

Goal striving and performance

As personal effectiveness is enhanced, it influences motivation for goal striving and performance. Schutz and Baumeister (2017) suggest that positive illusions/perceptions are related to self-related abilities. They examined that grade point averages of students upon graduation, stating that unwarranted confidence led to positive illusions which allowed students to work harder to achieve greater results. Therefore, when students fail to be confident and motivated, they end up performing worse and become counterproductive. This can negatively influence performance and success rates which causes automatic downfalls in a person’s self-esteem as it leaves them feeling hopeless. Butler (2011) depicted the use of positive illusions on goal striving and illustrated that positive biases were associated with performance goals which led to self-appraisal. Accurate self-appraisal enhances self-esteem and confidence which forces individuals to continuously create goals to further accomplish and gain fulfilment. This becomes essential in personal effectiveness as success acts as a motivator for further achievements. This benefits an individual as when their strive and motivation is enhanced, the task appears more manageable, therefore eliminating stress.

Optimism

Unrealistic optimism, similar to positive illusions, is the tendency for people to believe they are more likely to experience positive events than other people (Jefferson et al., 2017). However, this can unravel feelings of hope and desire which can allow individuals to extend their beliefs. It is claimed that positive illusions and optimistic thoughts form biased beliefs but have significant benefits as they enhance wellbeing, contribute to both mental and physical health and support productivity and motivation (Jefferson, et al., 2017). This enables individuals to believe that positive illusions can influence positive views about situations such as physical health traumas. With optimistic thinking, individuals can reduce stress and depressive episodes and become happier and healthier.

Cognitive adaptation theory

The theory of cognitive adaptation proposed by Taylor (1983) entails processes of cognitive adjustment strategies towards threatening life events with attempts to restore one’s control and positive self-view (Czajkowska, 2017). It is identified that the positive illusions presented are not considered delusional or inaccurate but rather enforce hope, personal growth and flexibility. Therefore, restoring positive perceptions correlates with cognitive adaptation to life-threatening events. This allows individuals to be optimistic about life stressors to enact a positive outlook. Czajkowska (2017) also identifies that, through this theory, the adaptation involves changing cognitions in three domains: pursue deeper meaning in the experience, increase personal control, and capitulating and maintaining positive self-views.

Effects of body image in adolescence

Figure 3. The lasting effects of body image intertwined with negative illusions.

Body image disorders can arise in adolescence. However, positive illusions in turn provide optimistic views about the self and can eliminate pressures and stigma (Ata et al., 2007). Ata and colleagues (2007) furthermore argue that negative illusions about the self can influence body image and self-esteem issues. Studies show that self-esteem, social support, weight-related teasing and pressures are associated with negative body-esteem which can lead to unhealthy choices and lifestyles (Ata et al., 2007). When obsessing over negative thoughts, an individual is more likely to face depressive episodes or disorders which will affect their daily life (Wenzlaff et al., 1988). Negative thinking surrounding body image will impact an individual’s self-esteem and feelings of self-worth. Therefore, lack of confidence is exposed and changes in behaviour will occur.

Body dysmorphia

Body dysmorphic disease is one of the most difficult conditions to manage and is commonly recognised as the disorder for ‘perceived body ugliness’ (Cotterill, 1996). People who experience body dysmorphia may experience suicidal ideation through the lack of positive influences. Therefore, one chooses to only perceive their body in an unpleasant way disregarding the actual self. Perfectionism places a negative effect on body image as it applies severe pressures from society although, with self-compassion, these risk factors of body dysmorphia can decrease (Foroughi et al., 2019). Similar to positive illusions, by creating an underlying respect for oneself, an individual can feel satisfied and subside harsh sufferings that body dysmorphia can place. Body image dissatisfaction is derived from disturbing thoughts and feelings which impacts overall wellbeing (Sandoz et al., 2013). This can become overwhelming when an individual is not in the correct mental state as this mindset can consume them and become a reality.

Ideal self vs. actual self

Figure 4. The Big Five Test which was used to measure self-esteem through ideal and actual self.

It is evident that there are perceived realities towards one’s ‘ideal self’ and ‘actual self’. The ideal self is considered to be the person you wish to be whilst the actual self is who you are (Lynch et al., 2009). In perspective, pressures of reality and the media can affect an individuals ideal self. Generally, the ideal self acts as a protector from perceived judgements from others. Positive illusions can be correlated with ideal self-views as they are favourable thoughts and perceptions of the self (Taylor & Armor, 1996). This can be controversial as personal effectiveness is compatible with the skills and views you have of yourself in a realistic manner. Lynch and colleagues (2009) discussed that knowingly one’s actual self-concept is important; people should also consider that they partake in ideal views of themselves which acts as a gauge for self-esteem. Rogers (1961) focused on balancing the two views by highlighting the discrepancy between the two self's and indicated that the larger the gap, the lower one’s self-esteem is. This was perceived through ‘The Big Five test’ (see figure 4). Therefore, when people are closer to their ideal self, the more likely they are satisfied and engage personal effectiveness. Rogers (1961) also suggested that when people are aware of the gap between one’s ideal and actual self- views, people become more inclined to seek psychotherapy and once the gap is reduced, it is a clear indication of positive personality change.

Social comparison theory

Social comparison theory (SCT), introduced by Festinger (1954), established that individuals would compare themselves to others when they were uncertain about their opinions and abilities (Krayer et al., 2008). This can create a domino effect whereby an individual seeks positive views about themselves, and in turn, their perspectives will become clearer. It is evident body image is an overwhelming concern, however, SCT is an explanation as to why people make comparisons between others. Donaghue and Smith (2008) indicate that this theory has two components. Firstly, upward social comparison, which relates to individuals comparing themselves to those who are 'better'. This strives individuals to become better in a competitive way. Secondly, downward social comparison, which is those who compare themselves to people who are 'worse off'. This has the tendency to make individuals feel better about themselves and creates ultimate self-appraisal. This model specifically targets satisfaction through the judgements and comparisons of others which achieves feelings of self-worth.

How can positive illusions be developed?

As individuals mature, harsh realities and confronting mental stressors are experienced. To reduce or even prevent negative thinking, it is important to maintain positive illusions about ourselves and depict ways to consciously develop them and put them to practice. Collins and colleagues (1989) suggest that individuals must maintain accurate views of the world and future beforehand. This indicates that by perceiving the world as a better place, it becomes easier to develop positive thinking about oneself. By maintaining positive views on their world, one's overall mood is happier, more positive and satisfied. It is also suggested that accepting not being in control can further develop positive illusions. People tend to overanalyse the future or outcome of a situation, with lack of control, one may feel confronted and severely overwhelmed (Collins et al., 1989).

Quiz

1 Positive Illusions are idolised views on how an individual perceives themselves

	True
	False

2 Positive Illusions can be unrealistic and overwhelming

	True
	False

3 Which statement is best suited

	Positive illusions impacts mental health more so than physical health
	Through Erikson's model (stage 5), positive illusions can assist in the development of identity and growth
	Positive illusions are beneficial towards only intimate relationships

4 Personal Effectiveness is

	How good you are at something
	Personal goals and beliefs that develop your personality

Conclusion

Positive illusions are favourable idolisations of the self which further portrays one’s ideal self. Self-confidence is boosted through the admirations one has, which further influences their wellbeing and enhances positive relationships. Personal effectiveness is crucial for one’s survival as it encompasses the utilisation of skills and motivation which makes a person who they are. Personal effectiveness influences personal development and growth, performance and motivation, and creates an optimistic attitude. However, it is clear that through the lack of positive illusions, personal effectiveness is not achieved, and this can lead to a negative mindset of the self. This influences the ongoing issue of body image and discrepancies between one's ideal and actual self. When not dealt with properly, positive illusions can be overanalysed and unrealistic. Positive illusions are recommended for self-fulfilment and should be used to admire one’s own self rather than comparing each other in order to achieve personal effectiveness. In future, this can be achieved by grasping a more positive and optimistic outlook about the world and future ahead.

See also

• Body image flexibility (Book chapter, 2020)
• Body image and emotional wellbeing (Book chapter, 2019)
• Self-perception theory and motivation for positive change (Book chapter, 2018)

References

Ata, R. N., Ludden, A. B., & Lally, M. M. (2007). The effects of gender and family, friend and media influence on eating behaviours and body image during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence,36(3), 1024-1037. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-006-9159-x

Baumeister, R. F., Shapiro, J. P., & Tice, D. M. (1985). Two kinds of identity crisis. Journal of Personality, 53(3), 407-424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1985.tb00373.x

Collins, R. L., Taylor, S. E., Skokan, L. A., & Aspinwall, L. G. (1989). Maintaining positive illusions in the face of negative information: getting the facts without letting them get to you. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 8(2), 114-129. https://taylorlab.psych.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2014/10/1989_Maintaining-Positive-Illusions-in-the-Face-of-Negative-Info.pdf

Colvin, C. R., & Block, J. (1994). Do positive illusions foster mental health? An examination of the Taylor and Brown formulation. Psychological Bulletin, 116(1), 3–20. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.116.1.3

Czajkowska, Z. (2017). Theory of cognitive adaptation. Personality and Individual Differences, 23-29. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_1019-1

Demerouti, E., Eeuwijk, E. V., Snelder, M., & Wild, U. (2011). Assessing the effects of a personal effectiveness training on psychological capital, assertiveness and self-awareness using self-other. Personal Effectiveness, 16(1), 60-81. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620431111107810

Donaghue, N., & Smith, N. (2008). Not half bad: self and other’s judegements of body size and attractiveness across the lifespan. Sex Roles, 58(1), 875-882. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9408-4

Erikson, E., & Erikson, J. (2012). On generativity and identity: from a conversation with Erik and Joan Erikson. Harvard Educational Review, 51(2), 249-269. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.51.2.g211757u27732p67

Foroughi, A., Khanjani, S., & Asl, E. M. (2019). Relationship of concern about body dysmorphia with external shame, perfectionism, and negative affect: the mediating role of self-compassion. Psychiatry and Behavioural Sciences, (1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.5812/ijpbs.80186

Jefferson, A., Bortolotti, L. & Kuzmanovic, B. (2017). What is unrealistic optimism? Consciousness and Cognition, 50, 3-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2016.10.005.

Jopling, D. A. (2008). Take away the life lie: positive illusions and creative self-deception. Philosophical Psychology, 9(4), 525-544. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515089608573198

Kidwell, J. S., Dunham, R. M., Bacho, R. A., Pastorino, E., & Portes, P. R. (1995). Adolescent identity exploration: a test of Erikson’s theory of transitional crisis. Health and Medicine, 30(120), 785. https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA17856528&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=00018449&p=HRCA&sw=w&userGroupName=anon%7Ebeed774e

Krayer, A., Ingleder, D. K., & Iphofen, R. (2008). Social comparison and body image in adolescence: a grounded theory approach. Health Education Research, 23(5), 892-903. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cym076

Makridakis, S., & Moleskis, A. (2015). The costs and benefits of positive illusions. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 112-115. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00859

Murray, S. L., Holmes, J. G., & Griffin, D. W. (2011). Reflections on the self-fulfilling effects of positive illusions. Advancement of Psychological Theory, 14(3-4), 289-295. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2003.9682895

Sandoz, E. K., Wilson, K. G., Merwin, R. M., & Kellum, K. K. (2013). Assessment of body image flexibility: the body image- acceptance and action questionnaire. Journal of Contextual Behavioural Science, 2(1-2), 39-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2013.03.002

Swann Jr, W. B., & Talaifar, S. (2017). Self-verification theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 62-65. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_1180-1

Taylor, S. E. (1991). Positive illusions. Basic Books.

Taylor, S. E., & Armor, D. A. (1996). Positive illusions and coping with adversity. Journal of Personality, 64(4), 873-898. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1996.tb00947.x

Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1994). Positive illusions and well-being revisited: separating fact from fiction. Psychological Association, 116(1), 21-27. https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1994-41068-001

Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding Motivation and Emotion (7th Edition). Wiley Global Education US. https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781119367659

Waterman, A. S. (1988). Identity status theory and Erikson’s theory: communalities and differences. Developmental Review, 8(2), 185-208. https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-2297(88)90003-2

Wenzlaff, R. M., Wegner, D. M. & Roper, D. W. (1988). Depression and mental control: the resurgence of unwanted negative thoughts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 55(6), 882-892. https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1989-15811-001

External links

• A simple trick to improve positive thinking (TEDtalk)
• Effects of mindset on positive illusions (University of California & University of Konstanz)
• Personal effectiveness and self management (Habits for wellbeing)
• The secret to true happiness-seeing that the self is an illusion (YouTube)
• Positive illusions (YouTube)
• What's positive about positive illusions? (Imperfect cognitions)