Reflections on Auer & Wei

Peter Auer & Li Wei: Handbook of Multilingualism and Multilingual Communication (2007)

Introduction & chapters 3, 5, 7, 13, 22

In the introduction chapter to this comprehensive handbook on multilingualism, Peter Auer and Li Wei argue for the fact that most of the communication and most of the people in the world are at least bilingual, concluding that monolingualism as the norm is a misconception. This misconception has during the years and the establishment of nation-states, however, led to a monolingual bias both in research and in our general thinking about language. Due to these mistaken beliefs, multilingualism was for long (and still is by some) considered as “a disturbance in the language order”, such as the kinds of contacts between languages that migration and conquest cause (pp. 2-3). As a result, the authors conclude, what is today considered as problematic multilingualism is actually a result of the idealized monolingualism within the nation-states. The handbook itself is to a great extent focused on these “problems” concerning multilingualism, but the authors also point out that the so-called problems are not natural, but rather attached to multilingualism by us. The introduction chapter ends with a summary of the themes in the book, which represent four perspectives on multilingualism; becoming multilingual, staying multilingual, acting multilingual and living in a multilingual society. In the text below I have decided to focus on one or more chapters in each of these four parts.

Part 1: Becoming multilingual

Patricia Baquedano-López and Shlomy Kattan write in chapter 3 about growing up in a multilingual community and language socialization. Becoming multilingual is as much about language socialization as it is about acquiring the linguistic forms in different languages. Learning about the norms and expectations about the language use in social contexts is thus an inherent part of becoming multilingual. As a field of study, Language Socialization seeks to understand the complexities of the interplay between languages and the individuals using them in different contexts, communities and cultures (p.69). An important question from language socialization’s point of view is what kind of effect do community and cultural structures and values have on the process of multilingual acquisition. From this perspective, multilingualism is not seen as an individual trait but as an interdependent, dynamic relationship between the individual and the community. The concept of speech community is introduced in the chapter as a more complex concept that what first might seem. Early definitions by e.g. Bloomfield (“a group of people who interact by means of speech”; 1933) are challenged and complemented by definitions by scholars such as Gumperz, Chomsky and Hymes (p.72). Modern models of speech community promote the views of both the community and its membership as more fluid, multiple and shifting, even “imagined” than their predecessors (p.73).

In a traditional sense, language socialization means that individuals are socialized both to the use of language and through the use of language, two life-long processes that are dynamically integrated, interdependent and intertwined (as referred to Schieffelin & Ochs 1986). Language socialization as a research paradigm is concerned with theories of social reproduction and social structures and demands certain kind of approach within its studies. Language socialization studies are longitudinal, ethnographic, cross-cultural, descriptive and analytic according to the authors. Their primary concern is the routine and everyday life of social actors (pp.74-75). One section of the chapter presents recent trends in Language socialization research, all according to the above mentioned criteria. The three themes are presented in short as Language contact and shift, Language ideologies and Language and identity.

In chapter 5, Colin Baker examines becoming bilingual through bilingual education. He presents a model dividing different forms of bilingual education into “weak” (or subtractive) and “strong” (or additive) ones, and different variations of both types within the categories. Among the “strong” types of bilingual education are four different types of education presented, such as Immersion bilingual education (e.g. Canada), Dual Language Schools (e.g. USA, Israel and Macedonia), Heritage language education (such as for Navajo children in the USA) and European Schools movement. The aim of all of the above mentioned is to give the children a balanced bilingual base, biliteracy and multicultural understanding through content-based language learning (pp.131-137). Baker presents also a deeper analysis of “weaker” forms of bilingual education. According to him, they refer to the mainstreaming of children from minority language communities, meaning that the outcome of these programmes is relative monolingualism and enculturation in the majority language. Studies have shown that weak forms of bilingual education give poor outcomes for most of the children, resulting in lower achievement, absence from school and dropping out, loss of the home language, poorer self-esteem and other social and emotional constraints. While widely presenting the many benefits of “strong” forms of bilingual education (such as higher level of language competency and classroom achieivement, broader enculturation, cognitive and self-esteem benefits) (p.148), Baker writes in one section of the chapter critically on political ambitions supporting the “weak” forms of bilingual education as they almost exclusively act upon the assumption that education in the majority language is the key to success in the society (p.134).

Part 2: Staying multilingual

Part 2 has a focus on retaining multilingualism after the acquisition phases. The chapter I wish to focus on here, Guus Extra’s From minority programmes to multilingual education focuses on multilingual acquisition in schools, arguing for an educational shift when it comes to immigrant and minority children and youth. Extra gives an overview of existing programmes of multilingual education, focusing in some ways on the educational systems in central Europe. The description sheds also some more light on how minority and immigrant languages are treated in monolingual schools in so-called monolingual societies (pp. 177-180). There is enormous variation within the programmes, ranging from absolute disregard when it comes to giving children support in their multilingual development to ambitious attempts to endorse the minority children in their multilingualism, or “weak” and “strong” forms of multilingual education as concluded in an earlier chapter by Colin Baker (p. 131). The chapter presents two case studies, one from Northern Rhine-Westphalia in Germany, the other from Victoria State in Australia. A conclusion from the case studies is that the programme in Victoria state with its compulsory participation for all children, and high aims when it comes to multiculturalism should be considered more successful than the North Rhine Westphalian programme which does, however give the children a good practice for mother –tongue teaching in Germany (pp- 181-191). Chapter 8 does not only present two examples of multilingual education, it also discusses the development and usage of different concepts and their nomenclature in the field of minority language and multilingual education. It becomes obvious that while language learning of some foreign languages (predominantly English) is being encouraged, minority and migrant languages are seldom included in this category.

Part 3: Acting bilingual

Chapter 13 is written by Benjamin Bailey and discusses multilingual forms of talk and identity work. His main thesis is that any form of talk or the absence of it are identity acts, sending signals to our environment about who we are and how we want ourselves to be perceived by others (p.341). For multilingual individuals, the presence of two or more linguistic, social and cultural sets of resources means that they have more ways of positioning oneself and others than monolingual, monocultural individuals. Through examples from a number of studies, Bailey shows how social positioning and identity work occurs through different forms of both mono- and multilingual talk. It becomes obvious that there are two clear ways of building social identities, “self- ascription” or defining oneself and “other-ascription”; how one is defined by others (p.345). These together form an individual’s eve-changing and dynamic identity and are constantly formed and re-formed through social actions, i.e. talk. Bailey also concludes that particular ways of speaking bear particular associations with them, such as connections to history, geographic regions, socioeconomic statuses, genders, vocations, and so on(p.343), many of which are also shown in the examples on interactional, indexical and metaphorical negotiations of identity (p.346-355).

Bailey complements the examples and analyses of multilingual talk with an analysis of the contrast between the (Western) ideologies of monolingualism attached to the idea of the nation-state and the multilingual and –cultural reality of most of the societies in the world. It is, in fact, multilingualism and multilingual ways of positioning oneself and negotiating one’s identity that are more common (p. 356). He also reminds the reader of the fact that multilingualism as a phenomenon is a social construction, just as the concept of identity is, and that they as such are also politically and societally relevant (pp. 362-363).

Part 4: Living in a multilingual society

In chapter 22, Monica Heller writes about multilingualism and transnationalism. Referring to Boutet (2001), she discusses the changes globalization and transfer to the “new economy” have meant for the role of communication in the society. Her conclusion is that language is nowadays at the centre of economic activity both as a process and as a product, whereas in the times of Taylorian economy it communication was considered antagonistic to work (p. 539-40). As for multilingualism, Heller describes globalization as having brought us into a constant movement like the waves of the sea, this concerning in particular linguistic aspects. “Every push towards monolingualism is countered by a pull towards multilingualism”, she writes (p. 540). As the current global conditions of modern economy have brought communication to the centre of economic activities, the role of “communication/language workers” is becoming more and more important (p.541). Heller concludes also that the conditions of the globalized new economy has meant landing to a situation where there is constant tension between standardization (monolingualism) and flexibility and diversity (multilingualism). According to her, this leaves us with two possibilities to try to manage the dichotomy; seeing language either as a skill or as a talent. If language is seen as a skill, then it can be managed by measuring, evaluating and remunerating it, or in marketing it as a commodity. The usage of translators and interpreters is one way of exemplifying this. If language is seen as a talent, skills in it are not something that one should be paid extra for, so both situations include different implications and contradictions in the new economy (p. 546). According to Heller, one of the key questions for academics interested in multilingualism and transnationalism is how to examine the multiple kinds of linguistic resources circulating in space and time, and the fact that some people have access and make use of them and others do not.