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Puerto Rico's Legal System

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Puerto Rican Legal System

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Puerto Rico's legal framework is a hybrid system where both federal and local jurisdictions operate simultaneously. The U.S. government created the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act [1] to permit the island to organize its own government under a constitution, which was adopted in 1952 and later approved by the U.S. Congress. This Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico outlines a government structure composed of three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial.[2] The judicial branch is regulated by both the Constitution and the Judiciary Act of Puerto Rico and consists of three main tiers: the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeals, and the Court of First Instance.[3] The Supreme Court serves as the ultimate authority on matters related to Puerto Rico’s Constitution, with its rulings standing unless a case falls under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Supreme Court, following the U.S. Constitution's supremacy clause. [4]

1.     The Puerto Rican Constitution

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(a)      History

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Puerto Rico's legal system has been shaped by both Spanish and United States historical and political influences. Since 1890, the island’s Civil Code was modeled after the Spanish Civil Code, reflecting its roots in the Spanish civil law tradition.[5] However, following the Spanish-American War in 1898, U.S. influence became prominent.[5] In 1917, the Jones Act signed by President Woodrow Wilson granted U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans. The United States Congress passed Public Law 600, which allowed Puerto Rico to draft its own constitution.[6] It permitted a local constitution for self-government under continued U.S. sovereignty.[7] Between 1951 through 1952, meetings were held where the people voted for a constitution, drafts were made and submitted, and finally in 1952, a final draft was submitted to the United States Congress.[7] The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico was ratified on July 25, 1952.[7] It is made up of nine sections called articles.[8] Most of these articles explain how the government is organized and how it works.[8] One important part, Article Two, lists the basic rights and freedoms that people in Puerto Rico have similar to the United States Bill of Rights[2].

(b)   Present day

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The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico is the supreme law, and it prevails every other Puerto Rican law.[4] The Constitution serves as the foundation for the legal system. However, the United States still has authority over areas like foreign relations, national defense, and immigration. In most cases, U.S. laws also apply in Puerto Rico, unless the island is specifically left out. [4]

Under Article 4, Section 3 of the United States Constitution, Congress has the authority to govern United States territories.[9] Puerto Ricans are United States citizens and are subject to federal laws; however, they lack full congressional representation because they have no voting power and have no voice during the United States general elections as they cannot vote from the island.[10]

2.     Puerto Rico’s Government Structure

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The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico outlines a government structure composed of three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial.

(a)  Executive Branch
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The Executive Branch is in charge of delivering government services to the public.[4] For example, it oversees how the money approved by the Legislative Branch is used to support areas such as education, healthcare, and other services.[4] Additionally, this branch is responsible for putting into action and making sure the laws passed by the Legislative Assembly are followed.[4] This branch of government is divided into different department that addresses different issues.[4] One of the departments is the Department of Justice, this department is in charge of investigations and charging persons suspected of committing crimes.[4] They also serve as the government's legal representative in any lawsuits brought by or against the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. [4]

(b)  Legislative Branch
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Puerto Rico has a two-chamber legislature called the Legislative Assembly (Asamblea Legislativa de Puerto Rico), made up of the House of Representatives and the Senate.[4] The House includes 51 members. The Senate has 27 members. The Legislative branch is responsible for creating and passing laws to ensure order and governance.[4]

(c)  Judicial Branch
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The Judicial Branch is the part of the government responsible for explaining the meaning of laws and resolving legal disputes brought before the courts by individuals, government agencies, or private groups.[4] It also ensures that the rights granted by the Constitution and other laws are upheld and protected. In general, under the Constitution and the 2003 Judiciary Act, the Judicial Branch is structured as a court system.[4] This system is made up of two main parts: judicial and the administrative. Puerto Rico’s judicial system (La Rama Judicial de Puerto Rico) is made up of three tiers.[4] At the base is the Court of First Instance (Tribunal de Primera Instancia), which consists of municipal and district courts. Above that is the Circuit Court of Appeals (Tribunal de Apelaciones), which handles appeals from the lower courts.[4] At the top is the Supreme Court (Tribunal Supremo), the highest legal authority on the island.[4] To help manage the justice system more effectively, the Judicial Branch is divided into thirteen (13) judicial regions across Puerto Rico, with each region covering a group of municipalities.[4]

3.     Sources of Law

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The laws that apply in Puerto Rico come from different places: written laws made by lawmakers, rules created by government agencies, and court decisions. Puerto Rico is a territory of the U.S., so federal laws made by the U.S. Congress apply here.[11] These federal laws cover many important topics like taxes and immigration, which affect how things work on the island. When Puerto Rico became a US territory, it incorporated the common law system.[12] This created a mixed legal system in which common law and civil law are blended. This system is what prevails today. [13]

For everyday private matters, like buying property, making contracts, family issues, or accidents, Puerto Rico follows its own Civil Code. This set of rules is based on the laws from Spain.[13] When it comes to court decisions, Puerto Rico doesn’t have to follow rulings from other places, but it can look at them for guidance. For example, Puerto Rican courts sometimes look at court decisions from Delaware when dealing with company laws because Puerto Rico’s rules are similar to Delaware’s.[13]

There are also several government agencies, both federal (like the Securities Exchange Commission and Federal Trade Commission) and Puerto Rican agencies (like the Department of Economic Development and Commerce and the Office of the Commissioner of Financial Institutions), that make and enforce rules.[4] These agencies play a big role, especially for people investing money or doing business.[13]

Laws are made by both the U.S. Congress and Puerto Rico’s local legislature. Lastly, international agreements signed by the U.S. also become part of the law here.[13]

Telecommunication Regulation in Puerto Rico

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Puerto Rico operates under the Telecommunications Act (known as Act 213), which mirrors the Telecommunications Act of 1996 in the United States.[14] The Telecommunications Regulatory Board of Puerto Rico is the agency in charge of regulating telecommunications services in Puerto Rico. The U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has authority over Puerto Rico’s telecommunications, including television and radio. [14] 

1. Legislation and Regulation

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(a) Telecommunications Act of 1996 - Act 213

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The Act facilitated the entry of new telecommunications providers into the Puerto Rican market, breaking the monopoly previously held by the Puerto Rico Telephone Company (PRTC).[14] This move was intended to stimulate competition and improve service offerings across the island.[15] The PRTC was a Delaware corporation that used to provide about 90 percent of the telephone services on Puerto Rico.[15] PRTC had many subsidiaries, such as Puerto Rico Communications Corporation (PRCC) and Telefónica Larga Distancia (TLD).[15] TLD was one of the companies that carried out most of the long-distance calls from Puerto Rico. [15]

After the Act, the market was opened to private competitors, including U.S. and international telecom companies, competition expanded in mobile services, internet, long-distance calling, and data services, and prices decreased because of these competitions.[16] Consumers had access to more services. With the expansion of services and technology, new technologies like fiber optics, DSL, broadband, and mobile networks were introduced on the island. These provided better access to high-speed internet.[16]  

(b) The Regulatory Board

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Act 213 created the Telecommunications Regulatory Board (known as Junta Reglamentadora de Telecomunicaciones)tasked with overseeing the telecommunications sector from 1996. The Board's mission included promoting fair competition among service providers and ensuring that all citizens have access to telecommunications services at reasonable costs.[17]  [18] In 2018, the Regulatory Board was reorganized under Act 211 of 2018, and now under one umbrella, Junta Reglamentadora del Servicio Público (JRSP) the Board is now known as the Negociado de Telecomunicaciones. [19] Other agencies were consolidated under the Negociado. Although now under a different organization, their mission is still to promote fair competition among companies that provide and offer telecommunications and cable television services to the citizens of Puerto Rico.[20]

(c) Other Regulatory Authorities

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The Puerto Rico Public Broadcasting Corporation was founded in 1949 to serve as the primary broadcasting corporation in Puerto Rico and follows the Act 216 of 1996.[21] It is a government-owned corporation of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico dedicated to public broadcasting: radio, television, and more recently digital media. The Corporation operates radio and television stations with a focus on educational, cultural, and public interest programming.[22]

(d) The Federal Communications Commission

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Because Puerto Rico is a U.S. territory, many U.S. federal laws, including the Communications Act of 1934 and the Telecommunications Act of 1996, apply to Puerto Rico. The FCC, which is created under the Communications Act, has regulatory authority over interstate and foreign communications, radio spectrum, and many aspects of telecommunications policy and infrastructure.[23] 47 U.S.C. grants the FCC jurisdiction over interstate communications, radio spectrum, international communications, etc. Puerto Rico, though not a state, is under U.S. sovereignty, therefore, it falls under FCC jurisdiction.[24] Matters that are local and may be regulated by Puerto Rico’s local regulatory body the Telecommunications Regulatory Board/Junta Reglamentadora de Telecomunicaciones. [19]

2. Primary Telecommunication Services

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Puerto Rico has many of the same phone and internet services as those in the United States. People can use mobile phones with 4G or 5G networks, get internet at home through cable, fiber, or wireless, and still use landline phones or watch TV through cable or satellite.[25] The biggest companies offering these services are Claro, which provides mobile, internet, and home phone services, and Liberty, which offers internet, cable TV, and mobile services. T-Mobile is one of the popular services for mobile phone service. Other companies like WorldNet, Caribe.Net, and TelNet focus more on internet and phone services for homes and businesses. ULTRACOM handles the undersea cables that connect Puerto Rico to the rest of the world.[26][25][27]

3. Relevant Case Law

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In the case of Puerto Rico Telephone Co. v. FCC, the Court affirmed the FCC’s ruling, concluding that the FCC had jurisdiction over the connecting carriers in the island under the Communications Act.[28] The main issue in this case was that the Puerto Rico Telephone Company (PRTC) attempted to implement a policy refusing to connect privately supplied telephone terminal equipment, specifically private branch exchange (PBX) equipment provided by Comtronics, Inc.[28] Comtronics filed a complaint with the FCC alleging that PRTC’s actions violated tariffs.[28] The FCC ruled that PRTC was bound by existing tariffs requiring interconnection.[28] PRTC challenged and argued that its operations were exempt from federal regulation under the Communications Act because they were primarily intrastate and state-owned.[28] However, the Court affirmed the FCC’s rulings, that the FCC retained jurisdiction under the Communications Act to regulate interconnection policies because of their substantial effect on interstate communication. Puerto Rico Tel. Co. v. FCC, 553 F.2d 694 (1st Cir. 1977).[28]

In the case of Puerto Rico Telephone Company, Inc. v. Municipality of Guayanilla, Guayanilla imposed a 5% revenue fee on telecom providers’ use of public rights‑of‑way, and PRTC argued that the U.S. Telecommunications Act and Puerto Rico’s Act 213 pre-empted the municipality governance.[29]  The district court found that the ordinance was preempted by Section 253 of the Federal Telecommunications Act (FTCA), 47 U.S.C. § 253 because the fee prohibited the ability to provide services due to the significant financial burden.[29] On appeal, the Court of Appeals affirmed the district court's decision, concluding that the ordinance violated § 253(a) and did not qualify for the § 253(c) "safe harbor" provision because the Municipality failed to prove the fee constituted "fair and reasonable compensation."[29] This ruling emphasizes the limits the FTCA places on local governments seeking compensation from telecommunications companies. Puerto Rico Tel. Co., Inc. v. Municipality of Guayanilla, 460 F.3d 133 (1st Cir. 2006).[29]

The Puerto Rico Telecommunications Act of 1996 broke a long monopoly, brought in market competition, and helped modernized infrastructure.  

Censorship in Puerto Rico

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Puerto Rico follows U.S. Federal laws regarding censorship and content restrictions, applying to both media and public platforms.[30] Like the United States, Puerto Rico protects its citizens freedoms, and when it comes to censorship, First Amendment rights are at issue.[31] The Supreme Court of the United States has held that Puerto Rico is subject to the First Amendment. See, Posadas de Puerto Rico Associates v. Tourism Company of Puerto Rico, 478 U.S. 328, 331 & n. 1 (1986)(so recognizing); Pérez-Guzmán v. Gracia, 346 F.3d 229, 232 n. 1 (1st Cir. 2003)(considering Puerto Rico the functional equivalent of a state for First Amendment purposes).[32] The First Amendment protects: the Freedom of Religion, Freedom of Speech, Freedom of the Press, Freedom of Assembly, and Freedom to Petition.[33] In the history of Puerto Rico, there have been instances where controversial laws have been struck down because of violating First Amendment rights. Moreover, Article II of the Puerto Rican Bill of Rights states, “No law shall be made ​​abridging the freedom of speech or press or right of the people peaceably to assemble and to petition the government for redress of grievances.”[31]

1. Prior Restraints

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Prior restraint is a type of censorship where the government can examine written content before it is published and stop it from being released.[34] Many legal experts agree that the First Amendment’s protection of press freedom generally forbids this kind of government interference.[34] Similarly, in Puerto Rico, Article 247 of the Puerto Rico Penal Code has been declared unconstitutional because it harms the protected rights of the First Amendment, such as the Freedom of the Press.[35][36] Under this statue, it would be a felony to write or publish any material drafted to persuade or influence a judge in a pending case, other than in the regular course of proceedings.[37]

2. The Gag Law

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Puerto Ricans are easily recognized by their pride in displaying the Puerto Rican flag, whether it’s a tattoo, a laptop or car decal, or even a keychain, and there’s a reason for that. In 1948, the Puerto Rican Legislature passed Law 53, also known as “La Ley De la Mordaza” (Gag Law).[38][39][40] This law made it illegal to display the Puerto Rican flag, talk about independence, liberation of the island from the United States.[38][39] Individuals would be arrested for having the flag and for discussing the independence of the island.[38][39]  The law allowed the police and the National Guard to enter into anyone’s home without a warrant and search and seize all property, regardless of probable cause.[38][39] Many were arrested for having the flag and for singing Puerto Rican patriotic songs.

The Gag law was similar to that of the Smith Act of the 1940s, in which it made it a crime to advocate for the violent destruction or illegal means of the U.S. government.[39] The Gag Law was modeled after the Smith Act but had harsher prohibitions.[39] The law was supported by the United States government, and it aimed to silence the island’s freedom fighters.[41] [42]The law not only went against the Puerto Rican Bill of Rights, but it also violated the First amendment rights.[42]Members of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party fought against this law.[42] These efforts were unsuccessful until 1957, when the law was repealed because it violated the citizens First Amendment Right of Freedom of Speech.[42]

Although this occurred over 50 years ago, the law left a chilling effect to Puerto Ricans, and many Puerto Rican celebrities and artist talk about how they are proud to be Puerto Rican and the importance of show casing the Puerto Rican flag.

3. Relevant Case Law

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In more recent news, in the case of Rodríguez-Cotto v. Pierluisi-Urrutia, No. 3:20-cv-01235, 2023 WL 4847002 (D.P.R. July 28, 2023), the U.S. Federal District Court struck down a Puerto Rican law that made it a crime to raise a “false alarm” news about public emergencies.[43][44][45] This law was known as the “Fake News” law. The court held that the law violated the First Amendment because it was a form of suppressing speech.[43] The law came about during the COVID-19 crisis.[44] Journalists and reporters would be hesitant to share information that they have because if they shared the reports and their reports failed to be accurate, they could face up to three years in jail and a fine up to $5,000.[44] Sandra argued, “as Journalists, our sole duty is to inform the public.”[43] She further stated that this case “is a reminder to defend the freedom of the press and that the public deserves to have access to information.”[43]

Honor and Tolerance

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In Puerto Rico, defamation laws are governed by the Puerto Rico Civil Code. Defamation refers to the act of making false statements about someone that harm their reputation.[46] This can occur through spoken words (slander) or written words (libel).[46] In Puerto Rico, defamation laws aim to protect individuals from false and damaging statements made against them. Claims for defamation under Puerto Rico law arise from three sources: the Constitution, the Libel and Slander Act, and Puerto Rico's General Tort Statute.[47][48][49]. However, sometimes the defamation laws can affect First Amendment rights.

1. History

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In 1974, Puerto Rico enacted a criminal defamation statute, in articles 118 to 121 of the Penal Code. 33 P.R. Laws Ann. §§ 4101-4104 (2001).[50] This text read as:

§ 4101.  Libel - Any person who maliciously, by any means, or in any way, publicly dishonors or discredits, or charges the commission of an act constituting a crime, or impugns the honesty, integrity, virtue or reputation of any natural or juridical person, or who blackens the memory of one who is dead, shall be punished with a term of imprisonment of not more than six (6) months, a fine of not more than five hundred dollars ($500), the penalty of restitution, or any combination of these, at the discretion of the court.   However, the court may impose the penalty of rendering community service in lieu of the term of imprisonment.1

§ 4102.  Truth as defense - In all criminal prosecutions for libel, the truth shall constitute a defense and the accused shall be acquitted, provided it is proven that the charge made is true and he had good intention and justifiable ends. If the victim is a public officer and the charge made refers to the performance of his duties, or if what was related or published refers to matter of public interest, the accused shall be acquitted whenever it is proven that the charge made is true;  Provided, That if the charge made is false, said accused shall not be acquitted, if it is proven that he acted knowing the fact to be false and with gross and obstinate contempt of the truth.

§ 4103.  Report of official acts - No report or statement, which is true and fair, of any judicial or legislative act, or of any other official character, nor of statements, arguments and debates had [contained] therein shall be considered to be libelous.

§ 4104.  Diffusion of conviction - The trial court shall order the diffusion of the conviction through the same means used by the offender or through any other analogous or similar nature, and at the latter's expense.

The statute only lasted for thirty (30) years because in 2003, it was found unconstitutional.

In Mangual v. Rotger-Sabat, 317 F.3d 45 (1st Cir. 2003), the United States Courts of Appeals, First Circuit heard this case in regard to the Puerto Rican defamation statute, articles 118 to 121 of the Penal Code. 33 P.R. Laws Ann. §§ 4101-4104 (2001).[50] The case was about El Vocero, a Puerto Rican newspaper, in which its reporter, Jesus Mangual, wrote that an officer in the police drug squad in Caguas, a city of Puerto Rico, was having an affair with the drug dealer during the 1990s.[50] According to Mangual, he published this information to provide an explanation as in to why there were so many drug cases in Caguas being dismissed and confidential information was being leaked.[50] The agent/officer sued Mangual and El Vocero for libel.[50] The court held that the criminal libel statute applies standards that are unconstitutional when it comes to speech about public officials and public figures; therefore, the statute violates the First Amendment.[50] This case left a chilling effect for reporters because they feared lawsuits against them for their right to freedom of the press and speech. The court in a way was stating that we cannot have court sessions in secret because the media has the right to access it.

2. Current Law and Application

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Claims for defamation under Puerto Rico law arise from three sources: (1) Section 8 of Article II of the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico; (2) the Libel and Slander Act of 1902, P.R. Laws Ann. Tit. 32, §§ 3141-3149; (3) Puerto Rico’s General Tort Statute, Article 1802 of the Puerto Rico Civil Code, P.R. Laws Ann. Tit. 31, § 5141.[47][48][49] "In Puerto Rico defamation can be either intentional or negligent, depending on whether the defamed is a private or public figure." Segarra Jimenez v. Banco Popular, Inc.,421 F. Supp. 2d 452, 458 (D.P.R. 2006).[51] When a public figure files a claim for defamation, they must show actual malice.[51] When a private figure files a claim for defamation, they must show negligence. Opinions and hyperboles are not considered to be defamatory and are protected by the First Amendment, Freedom of Speech.[52] Although the U.S. Supreme Court has not ruled that the First Amendment offers absolute protection for every opinion, it has determined that it “provides protection for statements that cannot ‘reasonably [be] interpreted as stating actual facts” about an individual.’” Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co., 497 U.S. 1, 20 (1990).[51] Puerto Rico applies the defamation standards similar to the United States standard.

In a very well known case in 2020, Noris Diaz v. Emmanuel Gazmey Santiago, the court granted Mr. Santiago's motion to dismiss because Ms. Diaz failed to prove that there was actual malice in the lyrics of Mr. Santiago's song to defame her.[51]. Puerto Rican model and TV host Noris Díaz, known as “La Taína,” sued rapper Emmanuel Gazmey-Santiago, known as “Anuel AA,” claiming he defamed her in his 2018 diss track “Intocable.” [51]One of the song’s lyrics mentioned her by name and in Spanish, called her a "puerca", which translates to "pig", and Ms. Diaz argued that he referred pig to mean slut.[51] The court found that because Díaz is a public figure she needed to show that Mr. Santiago made the statement knowing it was false or recklessly ignoring the truth, a requirement called “actual malice.” [51]The judge ruled that her complaint didn’t include any facts showing this; it only repeated the legal language without real evidence.[51] The judge dismissed the entire case, saying her claims failed to meet the legal standard and that free speech protections under the First Amendment applied.

  1. ↑ "Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950". Wikipedia. 2025-06-23. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Puerto_Rico_Federal_Relations_Act_of_1950&oldid=1297047745. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 "Puerto Rico Constitution". Justia Law. Retrieved 2025-10-11.
  3. ↑ "Judiciary Act of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico of 2003" (PDF).
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 "Government and Court System of Puerto Rico" (PDF). Access date: October 10, 2025. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Miller, Katie. "Research Guides : Commonwealth Caribbean Law Research Guide: Puerto Rico". guides.law.fsu.edu. Retrieved 2025-10-11.
  6. ↑ Anonymous (2023-08-08). "l.81-600 bill | Puerto Rico Status Archive Project". Retrieved 2025-10-11.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 "The Puerto Rico Constitution: A Unique Territorial Framework | State Court Report". statecourtreport.org. 2025-06-30. Retrieved 2025-10-11.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Puerto Rico Law". Justia Law. Retrieved 2025-10-11.
  9. ↑ "U.S. Constitution - Article IV | Resources | Constitution Annotated | Congress.gov | Library of Congress". constitution.congress.gov. Retrieved 2025-10-11.
  10. ↑ "Political Status of Puerto Rico: Brief Background and Recent Developments for Congress". www.congress.gov. Retrieved 2025-10-11.
  11. ↑ "Law of Puerto Rico". Wikipedia. 2024-07-16. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Puerto_Rico&oldid=1234795562. 
  12. ↑ "Researching the Laws of Puerto Rico". GlobaLex | Foreign and International Law Research. Retrieved 2025-10-11.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 "Comparisons | Global Practice Guides | Chambers and Partners". practiceguides.chambers.com. Retrieved 2025-10-11.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 "Puerto Rico Telecommunications Act of 1996" (PDF).
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 "SAS OF PUERTO RICO INC v. PUERTO RICO TELEPHONE COMPANY (1995)". FindLaw. Retrieved 2025-10-11.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 "PUERTO RICO HERALD: Privatization That Works". puertoricoherald.com. Retrieved 2025-10-11.
  17. ↑ "Puerto Rico Telecommunications Regulatory Board". Wikipedia. 2024-10-28. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Puerto_Rico_Telecommunications_Regulatory_Board&oldid=1253832612. 
  18. ↑ "Agencia: Telecommunication's Regulatory Board - Documento: Tomo II (Aprobado - Ingls) - Ao: 2012". presupuesto.pr.gov. Retrieved 2025-10-11.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 "Junta Reglamentadora del Servicio Público - Junta Reglamentadora de Telecomunicaciones". presupuesto.pr.gov. Retrieved 2025-10-11.
  20. ↑ "Negociado de Telecomunicaciones | Gobierno de Puerto Rico". www.net.jrsp.pr.gov (in Spanish). Retrieved 2025-10-11.
  21. ↑ "Ley de la Corporación de Puerto Rico para la Difusión Pública (WIPR)" (PDF).
  22. ↑ "Nuestra Historia - WIPR" (in Spanish). 2022-04-04. Retrieved 2025-10-11.
  23. ↑ "Federal Communications Commission | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2025-10-11.
  24. ↑ "47 U.S. Code § 154 - Federal Communications Commission". LII / Legal Information Institute. Retrieved 2025-10-11.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 "Best TV & Internet Providers in Puerto Rico [2025] | Compare Plans & Prices". Top Providers. Retrieved 2025-10-11.
  26. ↑ "Submarine Cable Landing Telecomunicaciones Ultramarinas de Puerto Rico, Inc. d/b/a Ultracom".
  27. ↑ "ULTRACOM". Wikipedia. 2025-02-13. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ULTRACOM&oldid=1275529230. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 Appeals, United States Court of; Circuit, First (1977). 553 F2d 694 Puerto Rico Telephone Company v. Federal Communications Commission (in en). F2d. pp. 694. https://openjurist.org/553/f2d/694/puerto-rico-telephone-company-v-federal-communications-commission. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 "PR Telephone Company v. Guayanilla, PR, No. 05-1400 (1st Cir. 2006)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2025-10-11.
  30. ↑ "Entertainment Law at Puerto Rico (US)". Law Gratis. Retrieved 2025-10-12.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 "Article II, Puerto Rico Constitution". Ballotpedia. Retrieved 2025-10-12.
  32. ↑ "Rodríguez-Cotto v. Pierluisi-Urrutia". American Civil Liberties Union. Retrieved 2025-10-12.
  33. ↑ "U.S. Constitution - First Amendment | Resources | Constitution Annotated | Congress.gov | Library of Congress". constitution.congress.gov. Retrieved 2025-10-12.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 "Prior Restraint". The Free Speech Center. Retrieved 2025-10-12.
  35. ↑ "Caribbean Intern. News Corp. v. Fuentes Agostini, 12 F. Supp. 2d 206 (D.P.R. 1998)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2025-10-12.
  36. ↑ RCFP (1998-04-20). "Law restricting writings about judicial proceedings struck down". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2025-10-12.
  37. ↑ RCFP (1998-04-20). "Law restricting writings about judicial proceedings struck down". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2025-10-12.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 redaccion-de-claridad (2019-10-10). "Claridades:La Mordaza". Claridad (in Spanish). Retrieved 2025-10-12.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 39.4 39.5 "History of Puerto Rico - 1900 - 1949". welcome.topuertorico.org. Retrieved 2025-10-12.
  40. ↑ "THE COMMONWEALTH OF PUERTO RICO v. LUIS M. SANCHEZ VALLE AND JAIME GOMEZ VAZQUEZ" (PDF). {{cite web}}: line feed character in |title= at position 32 (help)
  41. ↑ Rangel, Franklin. "Smothering a Country: Puerto Rico and the Nationalist Party".
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 42.3 "Ley de la Mordaza: The Law That Made the Puerto Rican Flag Illegal". PBS39 WLVT. Retrieved 2025-10-12.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 43.3 "Judge Strikes Down Unconstitutional "Fake News" Law in Puerto Rico". American Civil Liberties Union. Retrieved 2025-10-12.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 "Rodríguez-Cotto v. Pierluisi-Urrutia". American Civil Liberties Union. Retrieved 2025-10-12.
  45. ↑ "PEN America Legal Brief: Puerto Rico Fake News Law Stifles Press Freedoms". PEN America. 2020-08-13. Retrieved 2025-10-12.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 "defamation". LII / Legal Information Institute. Retrieved 2025-10-12.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 "Puerto Rico Constitution :: Article II - Bill of Rights :: Section 8". Justia Law. Retrieved 2025-10-12.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 "2024 Laws of Puerto Rico :: TITLE THIRTY-TWO - Code of Civil Procedure (§§ 1 — 3576) :: Subtitle 4 - Special Legal Proceedings Law (§§ 2241 — 3355a) :: PART V - Other Actions (§§ 2951 — 3355a) :: Chapter 255 - Libel and Slander (§§ 3141 — 3149) :: § 3142 - Libel defined". Justia Law. Retrieved 2025-10-12.
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 "2024 Laws of Puerto Rico :: TITLE THIRTY-ONE - Civil Code (§§ 1 — 5305) :: Subtitle 4 - Obligations and Contracts (§§ 2991 — 5305) :: PART XVI - Obligations Contracted Without Agreement (§§ 5091 — 5150) :: Chapter 393 - Obligations Which Arise Due to Fault or Negligence (§§ 5141 — 5150) :: § 5141 - Obligation when damage caused by fault or negligence". Justia Law. Retrieved 2025-10-12.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 50.3 50.4 50.5 "MANGUAL v. ROTGER SABAT (2003)". FindLaw. Retrieved 2025-10-12.
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 51.2 51.3 51.4 51.5 51.6 51.7 "Opinion and Order regarding Noris Diaz v. Emmanuel Gazmey Santiago" (PDF).
  52. ↑ "Defamation | Media Law 101 | PBS". PBS Standards. Retrieved 2025-10-12.
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