Pluringualism in the CEFR

Plurilingual education portal

Subject classification: this is an education resource.

Type classification: this resource is a course.

The CEFR is a council of european guideline that organises language skills in six levels: A1- C2.

The contexts that concern the CEFR are educational and professional. It's very important for the evaluation of language skills in training and work environments.

I have heard of language levels at school, because I'm a teacher, and now I teach italian to adult students in CPIA 4 of Rome.In my previous career experience in a primay school, I've worked with foreign kids.

Starting activity

Start by thinking about the following:

What do you know about the CEFR?
In what context is the CEFR discussed? You can search online to find information about the CEFR.
In what context have you heard of language levels (A1 to C2)?

Consult the first edition of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001). You will find different language versions on this page in French and this page in English. Read the (short) section 1.3, which defines the term ‘plurilingualism’ for the authors of the CEFR. List what you consider important, for example:

the distinction made between multilingualism and plurilingualism;
what the plurilingual approach emphasises;
what a plurilingual person is capable of doing;
the objective of language teaching and learning according to the CEFR.

Objectives

By the end of this section, you should be able to…

explain how the CEFR, in its original version and its Companion Volume (CEFR-CV), defines and addresses plurilingualism and plurilingual education;
identify the developments and differences between the original 2001 version and the Companion Volume;
provide a critical opinion on the status of plurilingualism in the CEFR and the CEFR-CV.

Key-words

Plurilingualism, CEFR, Companion Volume, plurilingual competence, plurilingual education

Introduction

In 2001, the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001) proposed a new approach to language teaching and learning. It promoted an ‘action-oriented’ approach that has become widely adopted in Europe and beyond – at least in theory. It also provides (primarily) competence descriptors for various language activities. These have also become widely adopted internationally. The authors of the Framework make another suggestion that has been less successful. They propose changing the objective of language teaching and learning. The aim would no longer be to achieve proficiency in several languages, but to help learners develop plurilingual and pluricultural competence. This should enable them to

manage their entire language repertoire to communicate more effectively by drawing on all their resources;
and to activate their existing knowledge and skills to learn new languages.

The authors thus aim to overcome the compartmentalisation of language teaching and learning. This could have been a revolution, but its implementation has remained limited in education systems. However, various projects have been funded by the Council of Europe through the European Centre for Modern Languages (in particular the development of a Framework of reference for pluralistic approaches (Candelier et al., 2007, 2012)) and others by the European Commission. The Council of Europe very quickly recognised the difficulty of moving from an educational language policy objective to the reality of language teaching and learning in institutions. It therefore published various guides and additional studies (Beacco, 2007; Beacco et al., 2016; Beacco & Byram, 2003; Coste et al., 2009; Lenz & Berthele, 2010) and, finally, a Companion Volume to the CEFR. This reaffirms the commitment to establishing plurilingual education and emphasises its importance.

This section will highlight this evolution from the original volume to the Companion Volume.

History

Plurilingualism is both a human characteristic and a social practice. This phenomenon has existed for far longer than the terms used today to describe it. The history of humanity thus offers numerous examples of plurilingualism. Let us take just one illustrative example: Giovanni Pontano, known as the ‘Gran Pontano’. A politician and intellectual at the court of King Ferdinand in Naples (1458–1494), he practised plurilingualism in his daily life. His example also reflects a largely plurilingual society at the end of the 15th century (Bistagne, 2019).

Similarly, the idea of teaching plurilingualism does not date from the Council of Europe’s recent language policies. It has deep historical roots.

The educator Jan Amos Comenius is regarded as one of the first to have developed an educational approach to plurilingualism. In his *Didactica Magna* (1657), he recommends learning only those languages that will be useful in the future — such as the languages of neighbouring countries, academic or professional languages — in addition to one’s mother tongue. For him, the aim was not to achieve perfection in all languages, but to develop functional proficiency.

Furthermore, many education systems have incorporated the use of multiple languages, but this does not always mean they aim for plurilingualism. Some models, such as the Utraquist schools in the Austrian part of the Habsburg Monarchy, facilitate transitions from one language to another, without seeking to keep all languages in use. Other approaches, however, explicitly aim to preserve a minority language. This is the case with the community schools established in France from the 1970s onwards, such as Diwan (in Breton), Ikastola (in Basque) or Calandreta (in Occitan), which are examples of plurilingual educational models.

From the original volume to the Companion Volume

Definition of "plurilingualism" and goal of the CEFR

Let us go back for a moment to the first activity on the concept of plurilingualism in the CEFR (reading chapter 1.3). In the following chapter (1.4), the text establishes a link between language and culture. Plurilingualism is placed within a broader framework: that of pluriculturalism. Thus, plurilingual competence is presented as a component of pluricultural competence.

To highlight this link, and drawing on a preparatory study for the Framework (Coste, Moore & Zarate, 2009, though an earlier version from 1997 exists), the CEFR defines the concept of plurilingual and pluricultural competence as follows (Chapter 8.1):

the ability to use languages for the purposes of communication and to take part in intercultural interaction, where a person, viewed as a social agent has proficiency, of varying degrees, in several languages and experience of several cultures. This is not seen as the superposition or juxtaposition of distinct competences, but rather as the existence of a complex or even composite competence on which the user may draw (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 168).

In other words, it is not about separate competences for each language or culture, but rather a single, holistic and flexible competence, within which a person can draw on different resources depending on the situation. This plurilingual and pluricultural competence encompasses all of an individual’s languages and cultural experiences — that is to say, their entire linguistic repertoire. With regard to language curricula, the CEFR recommends approaching different languages in relation to one another, rather than as separate entities. It identifies three main approaches to achieving this:

linking the learning of one language to the other languages offered, with a focus on linguistic diversity;
avoiding redundancy and encouraging the transfer of competences between languages;
providing for cross-curricular or transferable knowledge, as part of a holistic language education.

The ultimate goal of the curriculum, according to the CEFR, is to enable learners to develop an early plurilingual and pluricultural repertoire, as well as greater awareness, knowledge and confidence in their own competences, so that they can actively draw upon them (Council of Europe, 2001, pp. 129–134).

The paradoxes of the CEFR (2001 version)

The CEFR promotes the development of plurilingual competence but provides no real guidance on how to achieve this, nor any descriptors relating to it. All the descriptors in the 2001 version can be used to assess levels of competence in specific languages, but they overlook plurilingual competence.

The same applies to the grids of the European Language Portfolio (ELP), a Council of Europe project launched in line with the CEFR concept. The self-assessment section and the passport encourage learners to self-assess their competences in various languages. The passport allows users to visualise a profile of competences across various languages. It thus partly corresponds to the definition by Coste, Moore and Zarate adopted by the CEFR. This definition states that plurilingual and pluricultural competence is a “existence of a complex or even composite competence on which the social actor may draw (Coste et al. 2009, p. v).

”. The portfolio helps one recognise that one does not possess a homogeneous level in a single language or across different languages. However, this remains fairly close to a conception of plurilingualism that juxtaposes competences across different languages.

The dynamic nature of plurilingual competence is particularly evident in the reflective section of the PEL.

The Companion Volume aims to address the absence of this dimension by proposing specific descriptors for plurilingual competence and mediation.

Development of the Companion Volume (CEFR-CV)

The CEFR-CV is the result of in-depth reflection on the impact of the CEFR published in 2001, and on the need to incorporate more recent developments in the field of language teaching and learning. Five years after its publication, a survey showed that the CEFR had become the most important document in Europe for language teaching. It helped to harmonise approaches to language teaching and learning by creating a common metalanguage and common reference points. However, despite this success, it did not lead to a fundamental reform of language education based on the concepts it introduced.

It is primarily the levels and descriptors that have attracted attention. Widely adopted, they are sometimes perceived not as a reference system, but as rigid standards. As Coste (2007, p. 4) observes:

[…] the Framework was seen as a European standard, a kind of prescription or injunction, with contexts being forced, willy-nilly, to fit it - because it came from a European institution, and because other countries, regions, educational establishments, textbook publishers or authors, curriculum planners and test developers took its B2 or C1 as their target and benchmark.

In contrast, other concepts have had less impact, such as the action-oriented approach, mediation and plurilingualism (North 2023, p. 2), or the view of the learner as a social actor (CEFR Expert Group, 2023, p. 17). Plurilingualism is thus one of the concepts whose adoption has remained limited since the publication of the CEFR.

Several explanations, both conceptual and practical, can be put forward.

The simplistic interpretation of the distinction between plurilingualism (individual) and multilingualism (society) does not reflect the complexity of the concept. The CEFR-CV therefore emphasises the idea that the addition of distinct languages (multilingualism) and the overcoming of the separation of languages (plurilingualism) can be achieved both in individuals and within communities (CEFR Expert Group, 2023, p. 32).

The CEFR does not provide descriptors for plurilingual competence or for mediation. The operational contribution of the CEFR-CV fills this gap (Yüce, 2019, p. 96).

The CEFR is sometimes regarded as complex and difficult to understand. The CEFR-CV has therefore been designed to be clearer, more accessible and easier to use than the previous version (Council of Europe, 2020, pp. 13–15; North, 2023, p. 1).

Plurilingualism in the Companion Volume

It should be noted from the outset that the CEFR-CV introduces a series of significant changes that go beyond the issue of plurilingualism alone. Among these changes is the adaptation to sign language, with the development of descriptors for signing proficiency. In this section, only the developments relating to plurilingualism will be presented.

The CEFR-CV forms part of a broader framework: among the recent developments it takes into account (mentioned at the start of the previous section) is the Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture (RFCDC). For an overview of all the developments, please refer to section 2.2 of the 2023 Guide. The philosophy of the RFCDC plays a key role in the CEFR-CV: it broadens the scope of language education by promoting inclusive, plurilingual and intercultural education in the service of democracy, social justice and human rights (CEFR Expert Group, 2023, p. 3).

Plurilingualism is highlighted in the CEFR-CV and addressed more explicitly than in the 2001 version. The CEFR-CV offers a broader vision of this, showing that plurilingualism can be understood in various ways: as a sociological and historical fact, as a personal characteristic or aspiration, as an educational philosophy or approach, or even as a socio-political objective aimed at preserving linguistic diversity. This broader vision is also reflected in the link established with the concept of ‘translanguaging’, which is considered here as part of plurilingualism (Council of Europe, 2021, p. 29).

With regard to plurilingualism, perhaps the most significant contribution of the CEFR-CV is the introduction of illustrative descriptors for plurilingual and pluricultural competence — tools that were lacking in the original version (North, 2023, p. 4). This competence builds on the CEFR 2001, reaffirming ‘[…] that plurilinguals have a single, interrelated, repertoire that they combine with their general competences and various strategies in order to accomplish tasks’, and that plurilingual competence “involves the ability to call flexibly upon an interrelated, uneven, plurilinguistic repertoire” (Council of Europe, 2020, p. 30).

In Chapter 4, the new descriptors are presented. They are grouped into three distinct categories:

Building on plurilingual repertoire
recognising and acting on cultural, socio-pragmatic and sociolinguistic conventions/cues;

recognising and interpreting similarities and differences in perspectives, practices and events;

evaluating neutrally and critically (Council of Europe, 2020, 124).

Plurilingual comprehension
openness and flexibility to work with different elements from different languages;

exploiting cues;

exploiting similarities, recognising “false friends” (from B1 up);

exploiting parallel sources in different languages (from B1 up);

collating information from all available sources (in different languages) (Council of Europe, 2020, 126).

Building on plurilingual repertoire
flexible adaptation to the situation;

anticipation as to when and to what extent the use of several languages is useful and appropriate;

adjusting language according to the linguistic skills of interlocutors;

blending and alternating between languages where necessary;

explaining and clarifying in different languages;

encouraging people to use different languages by giving an example (Council of Europe, 2020, 127).

Pros and cons of the new developments: expected changes and criticism

The publication of the CEFR-V is accompanied by hopes of revitalising language teaching and learning, placing greater emphasis on key concepts such as plurilingual and pluricultural competence (as well as the action-oriented approach, mediation and the recognition of the learner as a social actor) — rather than continuing to focus solely on proficiency levels and descriptors.

However, the CEFR-CV has also been the subject of criticism, with some even questioning its entire approach: for instance, Coste (2021) highlights the paradox of attempting to adapt something as dynamic as plurilingualism to fixed levels. Maurer and Puren’s (2019) critique focuses on conceptual ambiguities and confusions which they regard as structural, particularly in relation to the pluricultural competence grid. In their view, the CEFR-CV seeks above all to modernise the CEFR for the benefit of certification organisations (Maurer & Puren, p. 140). Volle (2022) goes further and refers to a dissolution of language in action. She sees the CEFR(-CV) as an ‘incredible tool for standardising and uniformising language teaching methods’ (Volle 2022, p. 144) within a managerial framework.

Take home messages

The CEFR promotes the development of plurilingual (and pluricultural) competence as an objective of language teaching and learning.
The 2001 version does not provide descriptors for plurilingual competence.
This lack of specific descriptors and the difficulty in moving towards a policy objective of plurilingual education led to the drafting and publication of a Companion Volume to the CEFR.
The CEFR-CV is the result of in-depth reflection on the impact of the 2001 CEFR and on the need to incorporate more recent developments in the field of language teaching and learning (such as the CRCCD).
The CEFR-CV promotes plurilingualism (as well as mediation, the action-oriented approach, and sign language) and adds new descriptors for plurilingual education.
The new descriptors for plurilingual and pluricultural competence are grouped into three categories: pluricultural repertoire, plurilingual comprehension and plurilingual repertoire.
Critics argue that the CEFR-CV contributes to the standardisation of language learning on a questionable conceptual basis.

Self-assessment

Multiple choice

Reflection

Consider the criticisms directed at the CEFR. Is the CEFR-CV better suited to promoting reform in language teaching and learning than its previous version?

Make a list of arguments ‘for’ and ‘against’.

Resources to go further

Webinar "Aligning to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages – Companion Volume: a continuous process" (19 Sep 2024): https://www.youtube.com/live/5xslG-J7NTw
Webinar "Opportunities and challenges for plurilingual and intercultural education in times of AI" (04 Feb 2025)
- Webinar in English: https://youtube.com/live/byO8nno1jmk
- Webinar in French: https://youtube.com/live/Z-FtmjB9VBk
CEFR Expert Group. (2023). A guide to action-oriented, plurilingual and intercultural Education. Council of Europe Publishing. https://rm.coe.int/a-guide-to-action-oriented-plurilingual-and-intercultural-education-en/1680b52354
ECML: Plurilingual and intercultural education. https://www.ecml.at/en/Thematic-areas/Plurilingual-and-intercultural-education
Linguistic Diversity in the European Union. https://www.anefore.lu/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Linguistic-diversity-in-the-European-Union.pdf
PlurCur: https://www.ecml.at/en/ECML-Programme/Programme-2012-2015/PlurCur
Language friendly schools: https://languagefriendlyschool.org
Online-books in different languages / Bilderbücher in verschiedenen Sprachen: https://www.amira-lesen.de/#
Schule Merhsprachig Hefte. https://www.schule-mehrsprachig.at/trio/trio-ausgaben
ALL: http://all-literature.wikidot.com/multilingual-online-sources-of-texts
Lost Wor(l)ds: https://www.multilingualism-in-schools.net/category/activities/

Bibliography

Beacco, J.-C. (2007). Guide pour le développement et la mise en oeuvre de curriculums pour une éducation plurilingue et interculturelle (version intégrale). Conseil de l’Europe. http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Guide_Main_Beacco2007_FR.doc

Beacco, J.-C., & Byram, M. (2003). De la diversité linguistique à l’éducation plurilingue. Guide pour l’élaboration des politiques linguistiques éducatives en Europe: Conseil de l’Europe. https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=09000016802fc3ab

Beacco, J.-C., Byram, M., Cavalli, M., Coste, D., Cuenat, M. E., Goullier, F., & Panthier, J. (2016). Guide pour le développement et la mise en oeuvre de curriculums pour une éducation plurilingue et interculturelle. Editions du Conseil de l’Europe.

Bistagne, F (2019). Le plurilinguisme, objet d’histoire ? Le royaume de Naples et Giovanni Pontano. Étude de cas linguistique .In Écrire l’histoire - Histoire, Littérature, Esthétique, 19, 117-125. https://hal.science/hal-02610631v1

Candelier, M., Camilleri-Grima, A., Castellotti, V., de Pietro, J.-F., Lörincz, I., Meißner, F.-J., Noguerol, A., & Schröder-Sura, A. (2007). CARAP : cadre de référence pour les approches plurielles des langues et des cultures. Centre européen pour les langues vivantes.

Candelier, M., Camilleri-Grima, A., Castellotti, V., de Pietro, J.-F., Lörincz, I., Meißner, F.-J., Noguerol, A., & Schröder-Sura, A. (with Molinié, M.). (2012). CARAP : cadre de référence pour les approches plurielles des langues et des cultures. Centre européen pour les langues vivantes / Conseil de l’Europe. https://www.ecml.at/Portals/1/documents/ECML-resources/CARAP-FR.pdf?ver=2018-03-20-120658-740

Caravolas, J.A. (2011). J.A. Comenius (1592-1670) et le plurilinguisme. In Documents pour l’histoire du français langue étrangère ou seconde [En ligne], 43 | 2009. https://doi.org/10.4000/dhfles.826

CEFR Expert Group. (2023). A guide to action-oriented, plurilingual and intercultural Education. Editions du Conseil de l’Europe, Strasbourg. Council of Europe Publishing. https://rm.coe.int/a-guide-to-action-oriented-plurilingual-and-intercultural-education-en/1680b52354

Conseil de l’Europe. (2001). Un cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues : Apprendre, enseigner, évaluer. Didier ; Conseil de l’Europe. https://rm.coe.int/16802fc3a8

Conseil de l’Europe. (2021). Un cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues : apprendre, enseigner, évaluer – Volume complémentaire. Éditions du Conseil de l’Europe. https://www.coe.int/lang-cecr.

Coste, D. (2007). Contextualising uses of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. In Council of Europe, The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) and the development of language policies: challenges and responsibilities. Intergovernmental Language Policy Forum. Report. Council of Europe.

Coste, D., Moore, D., & Zarate, G. (2009). Compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle : Vers un cadre européen commun de référence pour l’enseignement et l’apprentissage des langues vivantes. Version révisée et enrichie d’un avant-propos et d’une bibliographie complémentaire. Éditions du Conseil de l’Europe. https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/SourcePublications/CompetencePlurilingue09web_FR.pdf

Coste, D. (2021). De Rüschlikon au Volume complémentaire ou Du risque qu’il y a à passer sous les échelles. Vogt, K., & Quetz, J.(Éds.). Der neue Begleitband zum Gemeinsamen europäischen Referenzrahmen für Sprachen. Peter Lang, 35-45.

Council of Europe (Éd.). (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages : Learning, teaching, assessment. Press syndicate of the University of Cambridge.

Council of Europe. (2020). Common European framework of reference for languages : Learning, teaching, assessment. Companion volume. Council of Europe. https://rm.coe.int/common-european-framework-of-reference-for-languages-learning-teaching/16809ea0d4.

Lenz, P., & Berthele, R. (2010). Prise en compte des compétences plurilingue et interculturelle dans l’évaluation. Conseil de l’Europe. https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Source2010_ForumGeneva/Assessment2010_Lenz_FRrev.pdf

Maurer, B. & Puren, C. (2019). CECR : par ici la sortie ! Éditions des archives contemporaines. https://eac.ac/publications/9782813003522

North, B. (2023). The CEFR companion volume and the action-oriented approach. In ItalianoLinguadue, 14(2), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.54103/2037-3597/19566

Volle, R.-M. (2022): Le CECR: une conception instrumentale et managériale des langues. Didactique du FLES: Recherches et Pratiques 1(1): 139-145).

Yüce, E. (2019). Plurilingualism and pluriculturalism in the CEFR companion volume. In Schriften zur Sprache und Literatur III (pp.93-99). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337243142

Credits

This resource has been created by Projet PEP (discuss • contribs) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission)

Christian Ollivier (Université de La Réunion)
Eva Vetter (Universität Wien)

	1. Proficiency levels
	2. Plurilingualism
	3. The action-oriented approach
	4. Mediation
	5. Pluriculturalism

	1. Descriptors for plurilingual competence
	2. Descriptors for signing (using sign language)
	3. Descriptors for communicative action
	4. Descriptors for task-based teaching

	1. The CEFR-CV fundamentally modifies the concept of multilingualism proposed in the CEFR 2001.
	2. In the CEFR-CV, plurilingualism is conceived as a component of a culture of democracy.
	3. Sign languages are included in the CEFR 2001.
	4. Sign languages are included in the CEFR-CV.
	5. The CEFR-CV adopts the concept of a language repertoire.

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