Plurilingualism and plurilingual education in the past

Plurilingual education portal

Subject classification: this is an education resource.

Type classification: this resource is a course.

Starting activity

Think about the following questions:

• What languages were used in schools in your country 100 years ago? Why do you think those languages were chosen?
• Can you think of a time when speaking more than one language was seen as a problem in education? Why might that have been the case?
• How do you think colonisation or migration has influenced the languages spoken in schools around the world?
• Have you ever experienced or heard of a situation where a student was not allowed to speak their home language at school? What might have been the reason?

Objectives

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Describe the historical development of societal multilingualism in ancient and modern societies
• Evaluate the impact of language policies on multilingualism and plurilingual education
• Critically reflect on the developments in language education  
• Explore and compare regional and global perspectives on multilingualism and plurilingual education

Key words

societal multilingualism - plurilingual education - historical development - language contact - language policy

Contents

1. Introduction
2. History of multilingualism
   1. Historical examples of multilingualism
   2. Ancient civilizations
   3. Medieval Europe
   4. The Early Modern period
   5. The Habsburg Empire
   6. Multilingualism beyond Europe
3. History of plurilingual education
   1. The rise of nation-states and the monolingual paradigm in education
   2. Shifting perspectives in the mid-20th century
   3. Plurilingual competence and the “Multilingual Turn”
4. Self-assessment
5. Resources to go further
6. Bibliography

Introduction

Societal multilingualism is by no means a new phenomenon; it has existed throughout human history. Franceschini describes it as a "human potentiality which can be developed when circumstances permit it anywhere and at any time throughout human evolution" (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2526). This contribution explores key aspects of multilingualism, focusing on its historical development, societal influences, and the challenges of its study.

History of multilingualism

The circumstances under which societal multilingualism develops are diverse. Some of the most significant factors are (Franceschini, 2013; Mende, 2022b):

• Language contact and trade: Language contact, often driven by trade, has historically been a major catalyst for multilingualism (Braunmüller, 2018; Franceschini, 2013). Cities, as hubs of commerce and migration, have long been hotspots of linguistic diversity (Roelcke, 2022, p. 6; Mende, 2022a, pp. 122–124).
• Migration: The movement of people across regions has brought languages into contact, fostering linguistic exchange and diversity.
• Language policy: The recognition and promotion of certain languages as official or educational languages have had a profound impact on societal multilingualism. Language policies determine which languages are used, preserved, or marginalized.
• Education: Closely linked to this is the influence of the education system, as language policy decisions determine which languages are taught, and whether and how students' home languages, minority languages, and others are supported and included in the curriculum. The languages considered to be academic languages/languages of science have also changed over the centuries and have had a significant impact on societal multilingualism.
• Colonialism: Colonial systems often imposed the languages of the colonizers on indigenous populations, leading to the suppression or extinction of local languages. Romaine (2013, p. 44) highlights the power dynamics in such contexts, where dominant groups often imposed their languages on less powerful communities.
• Administration: Multilingualism has been shaped by institutional frameworks such as religious practices, and administrative policies. For example, imperial systems often required plurilingual competence for governance and trade.

Historical examples of multilingualism

The study of historical multilingualism is often constrained by the availability of written records. Regions with a strong tradition of written documentation have been studied more comprehensively in terms of historical multilingualism than regions with predominantly oral traditions. However, these well-documented areas and societies are not necessarily those with the most widespread multilingualism (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2525–2526). Researchers often rely on direct and indirect evidence, such as loanwords or multilingual inscriptions, to reconstruct historical language contact (Boschung & Riehl, 2011, p. iii).

Ancient civilizations

The earliest evidence of multilingualism dates back to around 2600 BC and comes from the Sumerians: multilingual grammars and word lists on clay tablets were used in administration (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2). Further evidence of multilingualism comes from the Hittites, with clay tablets in Hittite, Sumerian and Akkadian, along with other languages (Dardano, 2011); or from the Egyptians, with multilingual steles in ancient Egypt. West Anatolia in the 2nd millennium BCE shows evidence of language contact between Greek and Anatolian languages (Ramón, 2022).

The Roman Empire

The linguistic situation during the Roman Empire has been relatively well researched. A large part of the population must have been multilingual – there is ample evidence of contact between Latin and other languages, partly due to the high mobility of groups such as the military, administrative staff, traders and slaves. Latin served as the official and educational language, while Greek held a special status. Those who did not have Latin as their first language (L1) had to learn either Greek or Latin. Important institutions such as the army were multilingual, and knowledge of Greek and Latin was also necessary for members of the imperial aristocracy. Although there was no explicit language policy, there was a certain need to learn Latin, which was apparently widely accepted by non-Latin speakers and large sections of the population (Adams, 2003; Adams et al., 2002; Franceschini, 2013, p. 2527; Mende, 2022b, p. 133). In the Roman Empire, Latin functioned as a lingua franca, learned by many as a second or third language for communication, trade, and military purposes. These multilingual speakers acquired Latin at varying levels of proficiency, similar to modern L2 learners. Over time, as native Latin speakers declined, learner-driven changes in the language led to the emergence of regional vernaculars known as ‘Vulgar Latin’ (Braunmüller, 2018, p. 300).

Medieval Europe

Medieval Europe was also characterised by multilingualism due to the demands of everyday life and work. This was particularly evident in spoken language, where there were no uniform standards, encouraging linguistic variation and flexibility. The gradual transformation of spoken Latin, for example, influenced by regional variations and non-native usage, laid the groundwork for the emergence of the Romance languages in the Middle Ages (Smith, 2007, p. 22–24). Knowledge of several languages was considered useful. In trade, in particular, it was common to spend time in another city (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2528–2529; Mende, 2022b, p. 133). Receptive multilingualism/intercomprehension was widespread, especially in Scandinavia, where conversation partners spoke different languages but understood each other due to the genetic relationship between the languages. This practice was later pejoratively described by Haugen (1966) as 'semi-communication' (Braunmüller, 2007).

Plurilingual competences were necessary in specific areas, such as church networks, education (where Latin was the language of instruction) and governance (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2528–2529). With Latin, a common lingua franca was established for the first time in the Middle Ages and, at the same time, it was influenced by intensive contact with other languages (Smith, 2007).

The Early Modern period

The rise of nation-states in the early modern period brought a shift toward monolingualism and the codification of regional languages. Plurilingualism became less of a common practice and more of an elite skill or a sign of socially excluded minorities and was therefore not held in high regard. With the Enlightenment, language learning also came into focus; grammars of individual languages were developed.

However, mixed-language texts persisted, as various examples show: Riehl (2023) examines the mixing of languages in texts from the 16^th and 17^th centuries, including Luther's “Tischreden” (table talks), in which he switched between German and Latin, the language of education. The switches partly imitate oral language use, e.g. switching to German to express emotions, but also to introduce and explain technical terms from the language of education, Latin.

1. Ich wolt gern, das sie unternumen wurden
2. propter Epicureismum et quia multa venena
3. inserta sunt. Er hat viel umb leib und leben und
4. die seel bracht. Er ist ein ursach der
5. sacramentirer. Quantum promovit grammaticam,
6. tantum nocuit evangelio.
8. Er ist ein schentlicher mensch gewest. Zwinglius
9. ist durch in vorfurt; Egranum hat er auch bekert,
10. der glaubet eben so viel, als er. Er starb auch
11. dahin sine crux et sine lux.
12. Wenn ich jung were, so wolt ich Graecam
13. linguam perfecte studirn, so das ichs kundte, und
14. wollte andere annotationes drein machen.

Example analysis of the Tischreden (Luther's comments on Erasmus' Annotationes (WA 5, 5670)), cited in Riehl (2023, p. 61), with Latin passages highlighted as in the original source.

Lüdi (2023), on the other hand, uses the correspondence between the Basel mathematician and natural scientist Daniel Bernoulli and Leonhard Euler in the 18^th century to show how the two scientists used several languages to create, communicate and disseminate knowledge (‘plurilanguaging’). Working in multilingual and culturally diverse teams fostered creativity and scientific progress.

The Habsburg Empire

An exception to the increasing monolingualisation in modern times was the Habsburg Empire, which maintained a pluralistic language policy for much of its history. German served as a supra-regional lingua franca, but was not the national language. Instead, the Habsburg Empire pursued a language policy aimed at linguistic autonomy: the 1867 Constitution guaranteed the equal rights of all languages in the crown lands; language coercion was prohibited (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2530–2531; Goebl, 1997). The Habsburg Empire also stood out in terms of its education system: Maria Theresa's school reform of 1774 introduced the so-called utraquism model, in which pupils were taught in their mother tongue and a second, more widely spoken language (e.g. German, Italian or Polish). However, also in the Habsburg Empire, a monolingual language policy gradually prevailed; at the same time, the regional differences ultimately led to considerable tensions (Goebl, 1997; Schjerve-Rindler & Vetter, 2007).

Multilingualism beyond Europe

• South America:

Pre-colonial South America was linguistically diverse, but colonization introduced European languages, often at the expense of indigenous ones. Assimilation policies led to the extinction of many local languages, and colonial languages like Spanish and Portuguese retained dominance even after independence (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2531–2532).

• China:

Evidence of early multilingualism in China is sparse: There is no evidence of multilingualism in the area that is now China until 221 BC. This does not necessarily mean that the area was not multilingual prior to this time. Although there are traces of language contact, written sources from 1200 to 200 BC only provide information about the Chinese language. This changed with the non-Chinese Qing dynasty. From the 18th century onwards, there is also evidence of multilingual dictionaries (Boltz, 2018; Mende, 2022b).

• South Asia:

Multilingualism has been a central feature of the South Asian region. It is primarily the result of contact over more than 3.000 years, during which time several language groups came into contact with each other. This led to the emergence of common linguistic features and the merging of language families. Sanskrit, Persian and English were particularly important as contact languages. Today, India has 23 official languages, and the 2011 census recorded 211 languages in total. The Ethnologue database lists 424 living indigenous languages (Bhatia & Ritchie, 2013; Kulkarni-Joshi, 2019).

History of plurilingual education

The history of plurilingual education is closely linked to the development of societal multilingualism. Factors such as migration flows, nationalist movements, colonial policies and the multilingual realities of work and everyday life have all shaped how educational systems respond to linguistic diversity. These influences are reflected in educational policies, as well as in approaches to language learning and teaching practices.

The rise of nation-states and the monolingual paradigm in education

Historically, prestigious languages such as Latin, Greek, and French were central to European education, while vernacular languages were often marginalized (Gogolin, 2021). The establishment of public education systems in Europe during the 18^th and 19^th centuries coincided with the creation of nation-states. These systems were designed to promote a monolingual national identity, with the national language seen as essential for social cohesion and education (Gogolin, 2021, p. 297–298). This "monolingual habitus" (Gogolin, 1994) became deeply ingrained, with the assumption that all learning should occur in the national language.

The rise of nationalism, industrialization, and colonialism in the 19^th and early 20^th centuries further reinforced monolingual ideologies. Regional and minority languages were suppressed, and linguistic homogeneity was prioritized. This shift was described as a form of "cultural violence" (Galtung, 1990), leading to the devaluation of regional, minority, and migrant languages. Dominant national languages were imposed at the expense of linguistic diversity. For example, in New Zealand, English-only education policies caused the percentage of Māori-speaking children to drop from 90% in 1913 to less than 5% by 1975. Similarly, in the United States, societal pressure and restrictive language policies gradually reduced the language rights of immigrants, reflecting the dominance of English (García, 2014, p. 85).

Shifting perspectives in the mid-20^th century

The mid-20th century marked a turning point in plurilingual education. Ethnic revival movements of the 1960s and the Civil Rights Era in the United States highlighted the failures of monolingual education for language-minority students. Bilingual education programmes began to emerge, such as the “Bilingual Education Act” of 1968 in the USA and Welsh- and Gaelic-medium schools in the UK. However, these programmes often prioritised the rapid acquisition of the dominant language rather than fostering true bilingualism (García, 2014, p. 86–87).

Traditional bilingual education frequently treated languages as separate entities, emphasizing strict separation to avoid "cross-contamination." This approach, known as ‘parallel monolingualism’ (Heller, 1999), viewed bilingualism as two distinct monolingual systems. In this context, Lambert (1981) distinguishes between two key types of bilingualism: subtractive bilingualism, where the dominant language gradually replaces the minority language, leading to the erosion of the latter, and additive bilingualism, which promotes the coexistence of both languages, valuing them equally and fostering their parallel development (García and Wei, 2014, p. 49–50).

In Europe, efforts to address the needs of migrant children began in the 1960s, with programmes offering supplementary mother-tongue instruction. However, these initiatives were often voluntary, limited in scope, and focused on preparing children for potential return to their home countries rather than integrating plurilingualism into mainstream education (Fürstenau, 2011). Support for minority languages remained inconsistent, and many plurilingual children relied on private community initiatives to maintain their heritage languages (Meissner, 2019, p. 225).

Plurilingual competence and the “Multilingual Turn”

In recent decades, globalization and migration have driven a more positive interpretation of plurilingualism. International frameworks, such as the UN “Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities” (1993), emphasized the importance of preserving and valuing linguistic diversity (Meißner, 2019, p. 221; García, 2014, p. 86–87).

The Council of Europe and the European Union have also played a key role in promoting plurilingual education. Initiatives such as the “European Charter for regional or minority languages” (1992), the publication of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages with the concept of plurilingual competence (Council of Europe, 2001, 2018), and numerous recommendations have emphasized the value of multilingualism and plurilingual and intercultural education (e.g. “Key competences for lifelong learning”; European Commission - Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, 2019;  “Council recommendation on a comprehensive approach to the teaching and learning of languages”; Official Journal of the European Union (2019/C 189/03); Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)1 and explanatory memorandum).

At the same time, language teaching approaches have emerged that seek to integrate all of a student's linguistic and cultural resources (e.g. pluralistic approaches [Link]) and translanguaging [Link]) to promote more inclusive and effective plurilingual education, recognising the fluidity and dynamism of language use. This shift in perspective is often referred to as the “Multilingual Turn” in education (Conteh & Meier, 2014; May, 2013).

Self-assessment

Reflexion (1)

• What are some of the challenges researchers face when studying historical multilingualism?
• Why might plurilingualism have been more accepted or even necessary in medieval Europe compared to later periods?
• How did the rise of nation-states in the Early Modern period affect the status of societal multilingualism and plurilingual education? Consider both the political and educational implications.

Self assessment

1

Which of the following factors contributed most to the development of societal multilingualism, according to the text?

	A. Climate change
	B. Language contact and trade
	C. Technological innovation
	D. Religious conversion

2

What does the term ‘parallel monolingualism’ refer to in bilingual education?

	A. Teaching two languages with full integration
	B. Using one language at school and another at home
	C. Treating bilingualism as two separate monolingual systems
	D. Promoting only the dominant language

Reflexion

Reflect on the concept of "monolingual habitus" in education.

How do you think this concept has influenced the way languages are taught and valued in your country’s education system?

Resources to go further

Braunmüller, K. (2018). Historical multilingualism. In Twelve lectures on multilingualism (pp. 299–328).

Franceschini, R. (2013). History of multilingualism. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. 4 En-Ho (pp. 2526–2534). Wiley-Blackwell.

Mende, J.-K. (2022a). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Deutschland. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit (pp. 107–130). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444

Mende, J.-K. (2022b). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Europa und in der Welt. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit ( pp. 131–152). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444

Bibliography

Adams, J. N. (2003). Bilingualism and the Latin language. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511482960

Adams, J. N., Janse, M., & Swain, S. (Eds). (2002). Bilingualism in ancient society: Language contact and the written text. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199245062.001.0001

Bhatia, T. K., & Ritchie, W. C. (2013). Bilingualism and multilingualism in South Asia. In T. K. Bhatia & W. C. Ritchie (Eds), The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism (Second edition, pp. 843–870). Wiley-Blackwell. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118332382

Boltz, W. G. (2018). Multilingualism and Lingua Franca in the ancient Chinese world. In J. E. Braarvig & M. J. Geller (Eds), Multilingualism, lingua franca and lingua sacra (pp. 401–426). Pro BUSINESS.

Boschung, D., & Riehl, C. M. (2011). Einleitung: Historische Mehrsprachigkeit. In D. Boschung & C. M. Riehl (Eds), Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Workshop des Zentrums für Antike Kulturen des Mittelmeerraumes (ZaKMiRa) und des Zentrums Sprachenvielfalt und Mehrsprachigkeit (ZSM) an der Universität Köln, Juli 2008 (pp. iii–viii). Shaker.

Braunmüller, K. (2007). Receptive multilingualism in Northern Europe in the Middle Ages: A description of a scenario. In L. Zeevaert & J. D. ten Thije (Eds), Receptive multilingualism (Vol. 6, pp. 25–47). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsm.6.04bra

Braunmüller, K. (2018). Historical multilingualism. In Twelve lectures on multilingualism (pp. 299–328).

Conteh, J., & Meier, G. (2014). The multilingual turn in languages education: Opportunities and challenges. Buffalo. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781783092246

Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers. (2022). Recommendation of the Committee of Ministers to member States on the importance of plurilingual and intercultural education for democratic culture. Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)1 and explanatory memorandum. https://rm.coe.int/prems-013522-gbr-2508-cmrec-2022-1-et-expose-motifs-couv-a5-bat-web/1680a967b4ECML

Dardano, P. (2011). Mehrsprachigkeit im hethitischen Reich: Die Beziehungen zwischen dem Hethitischen und dem Akkadischen. In D. Boschung & C. M. Riehl (Eds), Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Workshop des Zentrums für Antike Kulturen des Mittelmeerraumes (ZaKMiRa) und des Zentrums Sprachenvielfalt und Mehrsprachigkeit (ZSM) an der Universität Köln, Juli 2008 (pp. 47–60). Shaker.

European Commission. Directorate General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture. (2019). Key competences for lifelong learning. Publications Office. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/569540

Franceschini, R. (2013). History of multilingualism. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. 4 En-Ho (pp. 2526–2534). Wiley-Blackwell.

Fürstenau, S. (2011). Mehrsprachigkeit als Voraussetzung und Ziel schulischer Bildung. In S. Fürstenau & M. Gomolla (Eds), Migration und schulischer Wandel. Leistungsbeurteilung (pp. 25–50). VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften/GWV Fachverlage.

Galtung, J. (1990). Cultural violence. Journal of Peace Research, 27(3), 291–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343390027003005

García, O. (2014). Multilingualism and language education. In C. Leung & B. V. Street (Eds), The Routledge companion to English studies (pp. 84–99). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315852515

García, O., & Wei, L. (2014). Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education. Palgrave Macmillan UK, London.

Goebl, H. (1997). Le rappel de l’ histoire: Le plurilinguisme dans la vieille monarchie habsbourgeoise. Sociolinguistica, 11, 109–122.

Gogolin, I. (1994). Der monolinguale Habitus der multilingualen Schule. Waxmann.

Gogolin, I. (2021). Multilingualism: A threat to public education or a resource in public education? – European histories and realities. European Educational Research Journal EERJ, 20(3), 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474904120981507

Haugen, E. (1966). Semicommunication: The language gap in Scandinavia. Sociological Inquiry, 36(2), 280–297.

Heller, M. (1999). Linguistic minorities and modernity: A sociolinguistic ethnography. Longman.

Kulkarni-Joshi, S. (2019). Linguistic history and language diversity in India: Views and counterviews. Journal of Biosciences, 44(3), 62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12038-019-9879-1

Lambert, W. E. (1981). Bilingualism: Its nature and significance. In W. E. Lambert, C. E. Snow, B. A. Goldfield, A. U. Chamot, & S. R. Cahir (Eds), Faces and facets of bilingualism. (pp. 1–6). Center for Applied Linguistics, P. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED216530

Lüdi, G. (2023). Mehrsprachigkeit in der Wissenschaft im 18. Jahrhundert am Beispiel der Basler Mathematiker und Naturwissenschaftler Daniel Bernoulli und Leonhard Euler. In R. Franceschini, M. Hüning, & P. Maitz (Eds), Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Europäische Perspektiven (pp. 337–352). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111338668

May, S. (2013). The multilingual turn: Implications for SLA, TESOL and bilingual education. Routledge.

Meissner, F.-J. (2019). Plurilingual education. In C. Fäcke & F.-J. Meissner (Eds), Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeits- und Mehrkulturalitätsdidaktik (pp. 2017–2235). Narr Francke Attempto.

Mende, J.-K. (2022a). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Deutschland. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit (pp. 107–130). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444

Mende, J.-K. (2022b). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Europa und in der Welt. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit (pp. 131–152). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444

Official Journal of the European Union, C 189, 22 May 2019, No. 2019/C 189/03 (22 2018). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=oj:JOC_2019_189_R_0003

Ramón, J. L. G. (2022). Sprachen in Kontakt in Griechenland und Kleinasien im 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit (pp. 23–46). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444

Riehl, C. M. (2023). Sprachmischung in historischen Texten – eine Herausforderung an die kontaktlinguistische Theoriebildung? In R. Franceschini, M. Hüning, & P. Maitz (Eds), Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Europäische Perspektiven (pp. 57–76). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111338668

Roelcke, T. (2022). Viel- und Mehrsprachigkeit. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Hrsg.), Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit (Bd. 22, S. 3–28). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444

Romaine, S. (2013). The bilingual and multilingual community. In T. K. Bhatia & W. C. Ritchie (Eds), The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism (Second edition, pp. 445–465). Wiley-Blackwell. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118332382

Schjerve-Rindler, R., & Vetter, E. (2007). Linguistic diversity in Habsburg Austria as a model for modern European language policy. In J. D. ten Thije & L. Zeevaert (Eds), Receptive Multilingualism (Vol. 6, pp. 49–70). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsm.6.05sch

Smith, J. M. H. (2007). Speaking and writing. In J. M. H. Smith (Ed.), Europe after Rome: A new cultural history 500-1000 (pp. 12–50). Oxford University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780192892638.001.0001

UN General Assembly (1993). Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities. A/RES/48/138, 20 December 1993. https://www.refworld.org/legal/resolution/unga/1993/en/11497

Credits

This resource has been created by Projet PEP (discuss • contribs) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) :

• Margareta Strasser (Universität Salzburg)

Portal: Plurilingual education