Plurilingual and inter/transcultural competence

Plurilingual education portal

Subject classification: this is an education resource.

Type classification: this resource is a course.

Initial activity

1. First, make a list of what you understand by 'being multilingual'. Take notes to organise your ideas. C'est quoi, être plurilingue ?
2. The following video introduces us to intercultural competence in the workplace. After watching it, think about how this idea could be applied in an educational context: Les compétences interculturelles  

Objectives

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

• define what is meant by multilingual and intercultural competence;
• understand that multilingual competence involves an intercultural dimension;
• make the connection between intercultural and transcultural.

Keywords

multilingual competence; transcultural competence; intercultural competence; communication competence; multilingual turn; language repertoire

Prerequisites

• Understanding language and cultural concepts
• Knowing what is meant by communication skills.
• Be aware that the languages around us contribute to our linguistic potential.

Table of contents

1. Introduction
2. History
3. Design
4. Key points to remember
5. Self-assessment

Introduction

In response to the growing need for individuals and communities to interact across cultural boundaries and in diverse situations, the concepts of intercultural, transcultural and plurilingual competence have emerged from disciplines such as anthropology, sociology and education. These concepts are essential for understanding and managing cultural and linguistic diversity in an interconnected world. By promoting aspects such as empathy, flexibility, open-mindedness and tolerance, they enable learners to interact in diverse linguistic and cultural environments, thus contributing to the creation of inclusive multicultural communities.

These concepts, which have various origins, highlight different aspects of social and linguistic interactions within multilingual societies: intercultural competence aims to promote understanding and communication between different cultural groups. Transcultural competence, on the other hand, emphasises the hybridity and fluidity of cultural identities. Plurilingual competence stresses the ability of individuals to fully exploit their linguistic and general repertoire in multilingual contexts. The following sections provide a more detailed description of these concepts and present them in the context of their development.

History of the concept(s)

Intercultural and transcultural competence

Even before the emergence of the concept of intercultural education in the context of migration in Europe, concepts very similar to the Western idea of intercultural education were developed in non-Western countries. For example, in China and Japan, there are comparable concepts focused on minority groups, such as Dōwa education in Japan and the Chinese concept of Minzu, which has been part of teacher training since 1949. Dōwa education in Japan, offered within the formal education system, aims to reduce prejudice and discrimination against Buraku and other disadvantaged groups. It is committed to reducing social inequalities and promoting legal and economic equality (Neary, 2022). In Minzu pedagogy (the term Minzu is often translated as ethnic group; China officially has 56 Minzu groups), similarities and (unstable) differences are taken into account when encountering others; its main objective is to contribute to economic and social development of all (Dervin & Jacobsson, 2022, pp. 49–50). Similarly, the South African philosophy Ubuntu emphasises the close link between individual self-determination and social responsibility, placing community, solidarity and mutual responsibility at the heart of harmonious coexistence. It views humanity as part of a network of reciprocal relationships, where the well-being of each individual is inseparable from that of others (Ajitoni, 2024, pp. 3–5). These approaches also reflect the diversity of local contexts. Furthermore, the term intercultural does not exist in all languages, and similar concepts may address issues such as culture, language, ethnicity or local constructs (Dervin, 2025).

In the United States, Canada and Australia, the concept of intercultural competence was initially developed under the term multicultural education. In the 1970s, the United States' emphasis on minority rights led to the introduction of school programmes promoting cultural diversity. Similar developments took place in Canada, where multicultural education was introduced in response to demands from cultural minorities. Unlike in Europe, where the term intercultural education developed in the 1980s, the term multicultural education remained dominant in English-speaking countries (Portera, 2008, p. 482; Tarozzi, 2012).

The integration of immigrant children into various European societies has been at the centre of educational approaches based on a deficit hypothesis, which began in the 1970s. Early strategies included the creation of specialised educational programmes, such as Ausländerpädagogik (education for foreigners) in Germany and the establishment of reception facilities (introductory classes) in France. These approaches often involved specific interventions for foreign children that were disconnected from the official curriculum. They were subsequently criticised for their compensatory and assimilationist tendencies. The main objective was to learn the target language of the country as a means of accessing its culture, which was perceived as a static and closed system. The linguistic and cultural origins of the learners were not taken into account in this approach (Portera, 2008, pp. 482–484; Tarozzi, 2012, p. 398).

From the 1980s onwards, attention shifted from deficits to cultural differences in intercultural pedagogy. Intercultural learning became a central objective, emphasising empathy, perspective-taking and dialogue (Hauenschild, 2012, pp. 152–153) . An important foundation of the intercultural approach was  understanding of the others (Fremdverstehen) (Bredella et al., 2000; Bredella & Christ, 2007). In multilingual interactions, people not only use language, they also open themselves up to the cultural perspectives associated with and characterising it.  The relationship between the familiar and the unfamiliar is fluid and dynamic. Ignoring this dynamic can reinforce stereotypes by perpetuating an overestimation of difference (Bredella et al., 2000; Bredella and Christ, 2007).  Intercultural competence can thus be seen as the ability to interact across cultural boundaries and in diverse situations. It implies not only cultural sensitivity, but also open-mindedness and the ability to recognise, understand and respect the cultural differences expressed by speakers through their thoughts, feelings and behaviour. It should be noted that this concept is interdisciplinary, drawing on elements of sociology and/or psychology. It has become essential in today's globalised world (Reimann, 2015, pp. 2–4).

At the same time, the concept of transculturality has emerged as a broader concept, recognising that individuals are shaped by multiple cultural influences. It stresses the negotiation of identity and selective interaction with cultural elements (Reimann, 2017, pp. 14–15). Transcultural competence involves cultural crossover and blending, emphasising cultural hybridity as well as the exchange and mixing of cultures. The concept of transculturation, introduced by anthropologists such as Fernando Ortiz (1940) in the 1940s and developed more recently by philosophers such as Wolfgang Welsch (1999), aims to transcend rigid cultural boundaries in order to envisage a fluid and dynamic interaction between cultures. It can be said that cultures blend and intertwine in a process of continuous transformation. It is used more specifically in migration and educational contexts to promote intercultural interaction enriched by the recognition of this cultural complexity. This moves away from a fixed view of cultural identities, promoted by nation states, towards the development of a more cosmopolitan citizenship, nourished by the different cultures encountered (Welsch, 2025). It is also worth noting that in the 1990s, general pedagogy and foreign language teaching recognised the importance of intercultural learning for all students, not just those from immigrant backgrounds (Reimann, 2017, p. 16).

Plurilingual competence

The concepts of intercultural and plurilingual competence are closely linked. The Council of Europe's policy and educational documents on intercultural competence have played a key role in the development of the concept of plurilingual competence. The latter is a continuation of the bilingual competence highlighted by Grosjean (1993) and Lüdi & Py (1986, 2002), which considers a bilingual subject not as the sum of two monolinguals, but as an entity in its own right. Coste et al. (1997) first defined compétence plurilingue in their work “Compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle. Vers un cadre européen commun de référence pour l’enseignement et l’apprentissage des langues vivantes : études préparatoires.”, which was republished in 2009 in both English and French. In the foreword, Coste et al. present their definition of plurilingual competence and provide an English translation. Both versions are shown below:

On désignera par compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle, la compétence à communiquer langagièrement et à interagir culturellement possédée par un locuteur qui maîtrise, à des degrés divers, plusieurs langues et a, à des degrés divers, l’expérience de plusieurs cultures, tout en étant à même de gérer l’ensemble de ce capital langagier et culturel. L’option majeure est de considérer qu’il n’y a pas là superposition ou juxtaposition de compétences toujours distinctes, mais bien existence d’une compétence plurielle, complexe, voire composite et hétérogène, qui inclut des compétences singulières, voire partielles, mais qui est une en tant que répertoire disponible pour l’acteur social concerné. (Coste, Moore & Zarate, 1997, p. 12)

Plurilingual and pluricultural competence refers to the ability to use languages for the purposes of communication and to take part in intercultural interaction, where a person, viewed as a social actor has proficiency, of varying degrees, in several languages and experience of several cultures. This is not seen as the superposition or juxtaposition of distinct competences, but rather as the existence of a complex or even composite competence on which the social actor may draw. (Coste, Moore and Zarate, 2009, p. v)

Plurilingual competence thus refers to an individual's ability to communicate using several languages, while integrating the diverse cultural experiences associated with them. According to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR; Council of Europe, 2001), it is a complex and composite competence. Rather than being a mere juxtaposition of the linguistic competences related to each language involved, it is part of the comprehensive and dynamic management of the linguistic and non-linguistic repertoire offered by multilingualism. This includes having partial competence in several languages, forming a multilingual repertoire that speakers can draw on depending on the context. In short, plurilingual competence is more than just the sum of competences in L1, L2, L3, and so on. The Companion Volume (Council of Europe, 2020) further develops the concept of plurilingual competence. It provides descriptors and a more detailed, operational framework that emphasises flexibility and strategy. It also integrates knowledge from more recent educational approaches.

Several other documents stress the importance of plurilingual and intercultural education, such as the Guide to action-oriented, plurilingual and intercultural education (CEFR Expert Group, 2023), in line with the Guide for the development and implementation of curricula for plurilingual and intercultural education (Byram et al., 2016).

This holistic concept is considered a key skill for meeting the challenges of a globalised and increasingly mobile society. It applies to all areas of education, values all languages equally and aims to facilitate constructive dialogue between individuals and groups in diverse cultural and social contexts. This education is considered fundamental to building an inclusive and equitable society that respects and values linguistic and cultural diversity,while encouraging critical thinking and active social participation (Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)1; CEFR Expert Group, 2023).

This paradigm shift is the basis of what is known as "multilingual turn" (Macaire, 2025, May, 2013; Melo-Pfeifer, 2018), referring to the shift from a conception of an individual's language competences as being separate to a single, dynamic repertoire comprising all linguistic and other semiotic resources (e.g., gestures, intonation, proxemics, graphics, videos, images) of an individual.

This plural repertoire is evolving and unbalanced, meaning that competences in each language may vary, but they interact in an interdependent system that allows users to switch between languages or combine language resources to interact across cultural boundaries and in diverse situations. This concept emphasises plurilingual competence, which goes beyond the simple coexistence of several languages at the social level (multilingualism) to encompass the individual's ability to use and combine several languages according to communication needs.

This competence, which can be seen as heterogeneous in the sense that it is unique to each individual with varying degrees of linguistic proficiency, is part of an evolving dynamic that changes with each person's linguistic encounters. Thus, the plurilingual speaker’s social journey prompts them to draw on their linguistic repertoire and the competences associated with the various codes at their disposal, making this plural competence a distinct and valuable resource for learning.

Take-home messages

• Intercultural education is not exclusively Western: similar concepts exist in non-Western cultures, such as Minzu in China, Dōwa in Japan, and Ubuntu in East Africa, highlighting a diversity of educational traditions that are sensitive to cultural plurality.
• From assimilation to recognition of differences: since the 1970s, European educational approaches have evolved from a perspective focused primarily on adaptation to the language and culture of the host country to one that emphasises appreciation of cultural differences and intercultural learning.
• Plurilingual competence: plurilingual competence is not simply the sum of competences in L1, L2, L3, etc., but rather a unique competence within an individual's linguistic and semiotic repertoire.
• The concept of "transcultural" values cultural hybridity: Here, fixed boundaries are transcended and fluid interaction between cultures is promoted, which is essential in migratory and educational contexts.

Self-assessment

Multiple choice questions

1. Reread the section on intercultural competence in the Wikiversity article. Then watch the following video until 0:55. Take notes: what are the key aspects of intercultural competence?

2. Plurilingual and intercultural competence is a: 

A. static competence

B. dynamic competence

B. it depends

3. Being plurilingual mean being equally proficient in all the languages you know.

A. true

B. false

4/ What does plurilingual competence mainly refer to?

A. The ability to speak several languages fluently separately.

B. The ability to integrate and use multiple languages dynamically within a single repertoire.

C. The coexistence of several languages within a society.

D. The study of linguistic structures in different languages.

5/ What is the main objective of transcultural competence?

A. Preserving distinct cultural identities.

B. Taking into account and promoting cultural hybridity and the blending of cultures.

C. Learning about the history of different cultures.

D. Avoiding any interaction with other cultures in order to preserve cultural purity.

Correct answers: 2B; 3B; 4B; 5B.

Reflective tasks to share

• Think of examples from your own life or environment where plurilingual and intercultural competencies have played a role.
• Consider how schools and universities can promote plurilingual and intercultural competencies. What measures could be implemented?

Resources to go further

• Beacco, J.-C., Byram, M., Cavalli, M., Coste, D., Egli Cuenat, M., Goullier, F., & Panthier, J. (2016). Guide for the development and implementation of curricula for plurilingual and intercultural education. Council of Europe. https://www.coe.int/en/web/language-policy/guide-for-the-development-and-implementation-of-curricula-for-plurilingual-and-intercultural-education
• Byram, M. (2021). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence : Revisited. Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781800410251
• Castellotti V. (sous presse, 2025). La compétence plurilingue : entre communication hybride et expérience altéritaire. In S. Dietrich-Grappin et al. (Eds.), Vers la compétence plurilingue : Le translangage dans l'enseignement des langues tertiaires. Peter Lang.
• Castellotti, V., & Moore, D. (2014/2011). La compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle. Genèses et évolutions d’une notion-concept. In P. Blanchet & P. Chardenet (Eds.), Guide pour la recherche en didactique des langues et des cultures. Approches contextualisées (pp. 291-301). Editions des Archives contemporaines/AUF.
• Conseil de l’Europe (CELV). (2025). Éducation plurilingue et interculturelle. https://www.ecml.at/fr/Thematic-areas/Plurilingual-and-intercultural-education
• Conseil de l'Europe (CELV). (2025). Guide des compétences enseignantes pour les langues dans l’éducation. https://www.ecml.at/ECML-Programme/Programme2016-2019/TowardsaCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferenceforLanguageTeachers/tabid/1850/language/fr-FR/Default.aspx
• Moore, D., & Castellotti, V. (2008) (éds.). La compétence plurilingue. Regards francophones. Peter Lang.
• Reimann, D. (2017). Interkulturelle Kompetenz. Narr Francke Attempto.

Bibliography

Ajitoni, B. D. (2024). Ubuntu and the philosophy of community in African thought : An exploration of collective identity and social harmony. Journal of African Studies and Sustainable Development, 7(3). https://acjol.org/index.php/jassd/article/view/5672

Beacco, J.-C., Byram, M., Cavalli, M., Coste, D., Egli Cuenat, M., Goullier, F., & Panthier, J. (2016). Guide for the development and implementation of curricula for plurilingual and intercultural education. Council of Europe. https://www.coe.int/en/web/language-policy/guide-for-the-development-and-implementation-of-curricula-for-plurilingual-and-intercultural-education

Bredella, L., & Christ, H. (2007). Fremdverstehen und interkulturelle Kompetenz. Narr.

Bredella, L., Meißner, F.-J., Nünning, V., & Rösler, D. (Eds.). (2000). Wie ist Fremdverstehen lehr- und lernbar? : Vorträge aus dem Graduiertenkolleg « Didaktik des Fremdverstehens ». Narr.

Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Multilingual Matters.

Byram, M., Nichols, A., & Stevens, D. (2001). Introduction. In M. Byram, A. Nichols, & D. Stevens (Eds.), Developing intercultural competence in practice. Languages for intercultural communication and education (pp. 1–20). Multilingual Matters.

CEFR Expert Group (Ed.). (2023). A guide to action-oriented, plurilingual and intercultural education. Council of Europe Publishing. https://rm.coe.int/a-guide-to-action-oriented-plurilingual-and-intercultural-education-en/1680b52354

Coste, D., Moore, D., & Zarate, G. (1997). Compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle. Vers un cadre européen commun de référence pour l’enseignement et l’apprentissage des langues vivantes. Études préparatoires. Conseil de l’Europe.

Coste, D., Moore, D., & Zarate, G. (2009). Plurilingual and pluricultural competence. Studies towards a Common European Framework of Reference for language learning and teaching. With a foreword and complementary bibliography. Language Policy Division. https://rm.coe.int/168069d29b

Council of Europe. (2020). Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Companion volume. Council of Europe Publishing. https://rm.coe.int/common-european-framework-of-reference-for-languages-learning-teaching/16809ea0d4

Dervin, F. (2025, in press). Intercultural education as a polylith. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue / Encyclopedia of plurilingual education. Peter Lang.

Dervin, F., & Jacobsson, A. (2022). Intercultural communication education : Broken realities and rebellious dreams. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1589-5

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Reimann, D. (2015). Inter- und transkulturelle kommunikative Kompetenz. https://www.uni-due.de/imperia/md/content/prodaz/reimann_intertranskulturelle_kompetenz.pdf

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Welsch, W. (2025, in press). Transculturality. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue / Encyclopedia of plurilingual education. Peter Lang.

Credits

This resource has been created by Projet PEP (discuss • contribs) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) & Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien)

Credits

This resource has been created by Projet PEP (discuss • contribs) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : Thierry Gaillat (Université de La Réunion) & Margareta Strasser (Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg)

Portal: Plurilingual education