Non-formal and informal plurilingual education

Plurilingual education portal

Subject classification: this is an education resource.

Type classification: this resource is a course.

Starting activity

Try to remember your experiences over the last few weeks.

In which situations were you confronted with more than one language?
Please describe the circumstances in which these situations occurred (for example, at work, in your free time, at school/university, etc.).
Which languages were involved, and how were they used?

Have you ever been faced with multiple languages in one or more of the following situations?

When watching films, listening to podcasts, etc.
When using apps/programmes
On platforms such as LinkedIn, Instagram, Reddit, etc.
In professional situations (meetings, etc.)

How did you handle/react in these situations? (Switch to another language, subtitles, GoogleTrad, ChatGPT)

What did you learn from these experiences?

Individual words or phrases in other languages
Special features of the language (language and/or writing system, structure of texts, etc.)
Other aspects

Objectives

At the end of this section, you should:

know the concepts and characteristics of formal, non-formal and informal learning;
be able to identify their specific features within various educational and social contexts.
understand how formal, non-formal and informal learning interact and complement each other in diverse learning contexts;
understand how non-formal and informal learning contribute to lifelong learning, enhance transversal skills and support personal development.
understand the importance of different forms of learning for developing multilingual competence.

Key words

Informal learning, non-formal learning, learning environments

Table of content

Introduction
History of the concept
Definition(s)
Formal, informal and non-formal learning within the education system
1. Recognition of non-formal and informal learning
2. Digital language education and informal/non-formal learning
3. Plurilingualism and informal/non-formal learning
Take-home messages
Self-assessment
Further resources
Bibliography

Introduction

The concepts of informal and non-formal emphasise that learning takes place not only in institutions such as schools, universities and adult education centres within a clearly defined framework, but also and to a large extent outside the classroom, in everyday life, etc., and plays an important role in the development of a person throughout his or her life. In plurilingual approaches, especially in Europe (e.g., CEFR) these experiences are not just supplementary but are central to a holistic understanding of learners’ language resources.

History of the concept

The term 'informal education' was coined by the American philosopher and educator John Dewey (1859–1952) during his lectures at the University of Chicago. A transcript of one of these lectures was published by Reginald D. Archambault in 1966. Dewey attributes the same effectiveness to informal education as to learning in the classroom, arguing that it must be based on social relationships outside the classroom (Archambault, 1966, as cited in Rohs, 2016, p. 7).

The American philosopher Mary Parker Follett (1868-1933) also emphasised the importance of non-institutional education and lifelong learning, without explicitly referring to the term ‘informal education/learning’.

That education is a continuous process is a truism. […] Life and education must never be separated. We must have more life in our universities, more education in our life. (Follett, 1918, p. 369)

The term ‘informal learning’ was first used by Eduard Lindeman, a pioneer in adult education, in an unpublished manuscript 1925 (as cited in Jarvis, 1987, p. 122). Like John Dewey, Lindeman believed that learning is closely linked to real-life experiences, and that education should not be confined to formal institutions. Despite these early references, the concept of informal learning was not widely explored within academia. From the 1970s onwards, however, international organisations began to recognise its importance. A significant milestone was the 1972 UNESCO report (Faure et al., 1972), which argued that rapid scientific and technological developments required a new perspective on education — one that included lifelong and informal learning as essential components.

Coombs and Ahmed (1974) investigated how non-formal education could be used to combat rural poverty for the World Bank. By the 1990s, the concept had evolved significantly, with multiple definitions emerging, each highlighting different aspects of informal learning. Institutions such as the United Nations, the European Union and the Council of Europe published policy papers and position statements acknowledging the value of informal and non-formal learning in terms of personal development, social inclusion and employability (Harring et al., 2018; Johnson & Majewska, 2022; Overwien, 2005; Rohs, 2016)

Definitions: Overview and critical discussion

There is no universally accepted definition of informal and non-formal learning. Informal and non-formal learning are usually described in contrast to formal learning, based on certain criteria, such as learning taking place outside of educational institutions without leading to certification (e.g. COM(2001) 678 final, p. 32).

Informal learning is often characterised by taking place outside formal learning environments. It is usually driven by intrinsic motivation rather than the pursuit of specific goals and often associated with leisure time, family life, or even working life.

Non-formal learning is a type of learning that falls between formal and informal learning. It is typically defined by intentionality, intrinsic motivation, and learning objectives. Non-formal learning can also take place within educational institutions and may be based on a curriculum. However, it always involves a voluntary dimension.

Formal learning is structured, guided and usually follows a curriculum. Learning takes place in educational institutions and leads to certification (Johnson & Majewska, 2022; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development - Education Policy Committee & Werquin, 2007, pp. 22–25).

An overview of the possible criteria for distinguishing between different types of learning is provided by Johnson & Majewska (2022, pp. 4–5).

Formal learning	Non-formal learning	Informal learning
Learning is structured (e.g., linear objectives)	Learning may be structured	Learning is not structured
Learning is promoted through direct teaching behaviours	Learning is promoted through indirect teaching behaviours
Learning is intended (by educator and learner)	Learning is intended by the learner	Learning may not be intended by the learner
Learning is recognised by the learner and educator	Learning is recognised by the learner	Learning may not be recognised by the learner
Motivation for learning may be extrinsic to the learner		Motivation for learning is intrinsic to the learner
Learning takes place in educational institutions	Learning can take place in educational institutions	Learning can take place anywhere
Learning has a mandated dimension	Learning has a voluntary dimension
Learning may be recognised or measured through qualifications		Learning is not recognised or measured through qualifications
Learning may primarily focus on propositional knowledge	Learning may focus on both propositional and procedural knowledge
Learning tends to have a cognitive emphasis	Learning involves cognitive, emotional, social and behavioural elements
Curriculum is written down	Curriculum may be written down		Curriculum is not written down
Learning process is ‘top down’, focusing on developing specific knowledge and skills	Learning process is ‘bottom up’, focusing on the learner and their needs
Learning follows formal curriculum	Learning may complement formal curricula
Learning may not be linked to socialisation			Learning is often linked to socialisation

(Johnson & Majewska, 2022, p. 4–5.)

What recent definitions have in common is that learning is viewed from a holistic perspective, i.e. in the context of a person's entire environment and throughout their entire lifetime (Harring et al., 2018).

Formal, informal and non-formal learning within the education system

In contemporary education and labour markets, the recognition of learning acquired outside formal institutions – through work, volunteering, online learning, or community engagement – has become increasingly significant. Informal and non-formal learning contribute substantially to individuals’ competencies, yet these achievements often remain invisible in traditional qualification systems.

Recognition of non-formal and informal learning

To address this gap, several international organizations have developed frameworks and guidelines to support the validation of such learning. The European Union, for instance, has published the “European guidelines for validating non-formal and informal learning” (Cedefop, 2015), which provide a comprehensive framework for member states to implement validation systems that are accessible, fair, and learner-centered.

Similarly, UNESCO has advanced the “Guidelines for the recognition, validation and accreditation (RVA) of the outcomes of non-formal and informal learning (UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, 2012), developed in collaboration with 42 member states. These guidelines aim to promote inclusive education systems and support lifelong learning by enabling individuals to receive formal recognition for diverse learning experiences.

By integrating these international frameworks into national policies, education systems can become more inclusive, flexible, and responsive to the realities of learners’ lives. Recognizing informal and non-formal learning not only enhances individual empowerment and employability but also contributes to social cohesion and economic innovation.

As a possible framework for describing language learning outside formal education and training, Benson (2011) proposes a model encompassing location, formality, pedagogy, and locus of control. Each of these aspects can be viewed as a pole on a scale. The model recognises that the increased range of language learning opportunities has brought about significant changes to learners' environments and that the boundaries between formal and informal learning are becoming increasingly blurred.

Digital language education and informal/non-formal learning

Some examples of wider and emerging research fields especially in digital informal and non-formal learning are learning in the digital wilds and learning with AI based tools.

Since the 2000s, digital technology has opened up many opportunities to use languages outside the classroom. Informal learning is now a focus of language teaching and research. Sauro and Zourou (2017, p. 186) define 'language learning in the digital wilds' as 'informal language learning that takes place in digital spaces, communities, and networks that are independent of formal instructional contexts'. Similar expressions such as 'online informal learning of English (OILE)' (Sockett, 2014) or 'informal digital learning of English (IDLE)' (Lee & Dressman, 2018) also refer to digital learning environments.

Recently, AI-based tools such as large language models (LLMs) have added a new dimension to informal and non-formal language learning. Learners increasingly interact with AI chatbots (e.g., ChatGPT) outside of institutional settings in order to practise writing, rehearse dialogues, clarify vocabulary, or simulate real-life communication scenarios. These interactions often happen spontaneously, driven by learners' curiosity or needs, and blend characteristics of both informal and non-formal learning. (Guan et al., 2024)

Furthermore, outside digital learning environments, social developments such as an increasingly multilingual society are creating more opportunities for informal 'language learning beyond the classroom” (Nunan & Richards, 2015), an expression often used instead of “informal language learning”.

Plurilingualism and informal / non-formal learning

The expansion of learning environments offers more opportunities to use languages in all modes: reception, production, interaction and mediation. Online resources such as podcasts and films offer a wide range of opportunities to experience language authentically. Multilingual practices are particularly popular on digital platforms, with users adopting them for specific purposes (e.g. Androutsopoulos, 2015; Lee, 2017; Ndlangamandla, 2020). Physical environments also provide many ways to expand one's linguistic repertoire. These can be used to specifically integrate non-formal learning opportunities or encourage informal learning in formal settings. Various projects have demonstrated such potential, e.g. the Lingu@num project for digital tasks. Examples of raising awareness of multilingualism can be seen in the LinguaSnapp citizen science project, which documents the multilingual landscape of Manchester.

The Linguistic Risk-Taking Initiative is a pedagogical approach that promotes the use of the target language in daily situations outside of formal settings of instruction (Slavkov, 2023; Slavkov, 2020; Slavkov & Séror, 2019). Language learners are encouraged to take linguistic risks, which are defined as “authentic everyday communicative acts that take place outside of the language classroom and involve spontaneous and meaningful second language use” (Slavkov & Séror, 2019, p. 259). Since the Linguistic Risk-Taking Initiative is introduced to language learners in the classroom, but focuses on their target language use in everyday life, it can be considered a link between formal and informal learning (Cajka et al., 2023; Griffiths & Slavkov, 2021).

Take-home messages

Learning happens everywhere: Education is not limited to schools or universities. Informal and non-formal learning occur in everyday life, through digital media, social interactions, and community engagement.
Blurred boundaries: The lines between formal, non-formal, and informal learning are increasingly fluid, especially in language education.
Plurilingualism is a resource: Using multiple languages in various contexts (e.g., online platforms, work, leisure) enhances language competencies and cultural awareness.
Digital environments matter: Informal digital learning (e.g., through podcasts, games, social media) plays a growing role in language acquisition.
Recognition is key: International frameworks (e.g., from the EU and UNESCO) aim to validate and recognize learning that happens outside formal education.

Self-assessment

Further resources

Lingu@num project: https://www.linguanum.eu/productions-products
LinguaSnapp citizen science project: https://mlm.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/linguasnapp/index.html
Recognition of further learning in Europe: https://education.ec.europa.eu/news/recognition-of-prior-learning-in-europe
Europass: https://europass.europa.eu/en/validation-non-formal-and-informal-learning
UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning: Recognition, validation and accreditation of non-formal and informal Learning: https://www.uil.unesco.org/en/lifelong-learning/recognition-validation-accreditation

Bibliography

Androutsopoulos, J. (2015). Networked multilingualism: Some language practices on Facebook and their implications. International Journal of Bilingualism, 19(2), 185–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1367006913489198

Benson, P. (2011). Language learning and teaching beyond the classroom: An introduction to the field. In P. Benson & H. Reinders, Hayo (Eds.), Beyond the language classroom (pp. 7–16). Palgrave Macmillan.

Cajka, Stefanie; Ed, Griffiths, Nikolay Slavkov & Eva Vetter. 2023. Linguistic risk-taking and informal language learning in Canada and Austria. In Denyze Toffoli, Geoffrey Sockett & Meryl Kusyk (eds.), Language Learning and Leisure: Informal Language Learning in the Digital Age (Studies on Language Acquisition [SOLA] 66), 207-237. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.

Cedefop. (2015). European guidelines for validating non-formal and informal learning. Publications Office. http://dx.doi.org/10.2801/378817

Coombs, P. H., Ahmed, M., International Council for Educational Development., & World Bank. (1974). Attacking rural poverty; how nonformal education can help. Johns Hopkins University Press. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/656871468326130937/pdf/multi-page.pdf

Faure, E., Herrera, F., Kaddoura, A.-R., Lopes, H., Petrovsky, A. V., Rahnema, M., & Champion Ward, F. (1972). Learning to be: The world of education today and tomorrow. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

Follett, M. P. (with Cornell University Library). (1918). The new state, group organization the solution of popular government. Longmans, Green and co. http://archive.org/details/cu31924016856209

Griffiths, Ed & Nikolay Slavkov. 2021. Linguistic risk-taking: A bridge between the classroom and the outside world. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics 24(2). 127-158.

Guan, L., Li, S., & Gu, M. M. (2024). AI in informal digital English learning: A meta-analysis of its effectiveness on proficiency, motivation, and self-regulation. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 7, 100323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100323

Harring, M., Witte, M. D., & Burger, T. (2018). Informelles Lernen—Eine Einführung. In M. Harring, M. D. Witte, & T. Burger (Eds.), Handbuch informelles Lernen: Interdisziplinäre und internationale Perspektiven (pp. 12–25). Beltz Juventa.

Jarvis, P. (Ed.). (1987). Eduard Lindeman. In S. Brookfield, Twentieth century thinkers in adult & continuing education (pp. 119–143). Croom Helm.

Johnson, M., & Majewska, D. (2022, September 1). Formal, non-formal, and informal learning: What are they, and how can we research them? Cambridge University Press & Assessment. https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/371731

Lee, M.-K. (2017). To be autonomous or not to be: Issues of subsuming self-determination theory into research on language learner autonomy. TESOL Quarterly, 51(1), 220–228. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.343

Lee, J. S., & Dressman, M. (2018). When IDLE hands make an English workshop: Informal digital learning of English and language proficiency. TESOL Quarterly, 52(2), 435–445. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.422

Lindeman, E. (1926). The meaning of adult education. New Republic, inc.

Ndlangamandla, S. (2020). Language alternation in online forums: English monolingual normativity and multilingual practices. Scrutiny2, 25(1), 43–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/18125441.2020.1802504

Nunan, D., & Richards, J. C. (Eds.). (2015). Language learning beyond the classroom (1. publ.). Routledge.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development - Education Policy Committee, & Werquin, P. (2007, September 19). Terms, concepts and models for analysing the value of recognition programme. https://one.oecd.org/document/EDU/EDPC(2007)24/en/pdf

Overwien, B. (2005). Stichwort: Informelles lernen. Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft, 8(3), 339–355. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11618-005-0144-z

Rohs, M. (2016). Genese informellen Lernens. In M. D. Witte, T. Burger, & M. Harring (Eds.), Handbuch informelles Lernen: Interdisziplinäre und internationale Perspektiven (pp. 3–38). Beltz Juventa.

Sauro, S., & Zourou, K. (2017). Call for Papers for CALL in the Digital Wilds Special Issue. CALL in the Digital Wilds, 21(1). https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/items/c9da50ba-1f65-41d9-a3d3-f6ebad8c37ce

Slavkov, N. (2020). Where the magic happens: Fostering language learning, bilingualism and multilingualism through linguistic risk-taking. In T. Tinnefeld (Ed.), The magic of language: Productivity in linguistics and language teaching (pp. 47–70). COD. https://d-nb.info/1241778841/04

Slavkov, N. (2023). Linguistic risk-taking: A new pedagogical approach and a research program. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 26(2), 32–59. https://doi.org/10.37213/cjal.2023.33038

Slavkov, N., & Séror, J. (2019). The development of the linguistic risk-taking initiative at the University of Ottawa. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 75(3), 254–272. https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.2018-0202

Sockett, G. (2014). The online informal learning of English. Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137414885

UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning. (2012). UNESCO Guidelines for the recognition, validation and accreditation of the outcomes of non-formal and informal learning. UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL). http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002163/216360e.pdf

Credits

This resource has been created by Projet PEP (discuss • contribs) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) :

Margareta Strasser (Universität Salzburg)
Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien)

Portal: Plurilingual education

	A) It is structured and leads to certification.
	B) It happens during everyday activities, often spontaneously and unintended.
	C) It is always guided by a teacher.
	D) It only occurs in formal institutions.

	A) Watching a movie in another language at home.
	B) Attending a language conversation group outside school.
	C) Learning a language through family conversations.
	D) Reading a textbook in school.

	A) To replace formal education systems.
	B) To foster self-directed learning.
	C) To validate and recognise learning outside formal institutions.
	D) To standardise learning in European education systems.