Native speakerism

Plurilingual education portal

Subject classification: this is an education resource.

Type classification: this resource is a course.

Starting activity

You are looking for a teacher for an online English course on a learning platform. You aim to improve pronunciation and conversation and deepen your grammar and vocabulary skills. Observe the following teacher profiles (cf. Figure 1). Who would you choose and based on what criteria?

If your choice was influenced by the teacher's nationality or native language, you might have been affected by a cognitive bias: the belief that a native-speaking teacher always guarantees better learning compared to a non-native speaker.

Objectives

At the end of this section, you will be able to

reflect on cognitive biases that may affect the perception of native and non-native teachers.
understand the concept and the implications of native speakerism and its influence on language learning choices.

Keywords

Myth of native speaker, native speaker ideology', native speaker, non native speaker, English Language Teaching – ELT, multilingualism.

Introduction

The term native speaker is commonly used, especially in the field of language teaching, and carries various connotations, including the myth of the native speaker and the ideology of native speakerism. From a sociolinguistic perspective, this concept is controversial because it is often associated with ideas of authenticity and linguistic authority that do not always reflect reality. In other words, the native speaker is often seen as the ideal model for language teaching, overlooking the value of the potential pedagogical and didactic skills of those who have acquired the language as a second language.

However, in multilingual societies, this notion has become increasingly obsolete. Paikeday (1985), in The Native Speaker is Dead!, argued that the concept of the native speaker rests on an illusion of linguistic homogeneity that does not reflect the complex, multilingual reality of language users. Building on this idea, Cook (1999) proposed moving beyond the native-speaker model in favor of the L2 user, who should be seen as a legitimate and fully competent language user in their own right, rather than a deficient imitation of a monolingual ideal. This shift recognizes that language learners are inherently plurilingual and that their linguistic repertoires reflect the dynamic, interconnected nature of real-world communication.

This distinction between native and non-native speakers not only oversimplifies reality but also reinforces implicit hierarchies that position native-speaking teachers as superior to non-native teachers. This phenomenon, known as native-speakerism (Halliday, 2006), is a sociocultural construct that assumes a higher level of competence in those who have learned a language from early childhood, often leading to a preference for native-speaking teachers at the expense of highly qualified professionals.

In the field of English Language Teaching (ELT), this ideology developed within the educational contexts of English-speaking countries such as the United Kingdom, the United States, and Australia, where the belief emerged that only native speakers can provide the most authentic language model. Native speakerism often promotes a single “pure” variety of the language (typically based on British or American standards in the case of English), ignoring the reality of linguistic variation and the skills of non-native speakers.

However, non-native English teachers are themselves plurilingual individuals who have personally experienced the process of language learning. This gives them valuable insights into the challenges and strategies involved in acquiring a second language, as well as an ability to draw on multiple linguistic and cultural repertoires to support learners. Their plurilingual competence not only enriches the teaching process but also embodies a more inclusive and realistic model of global English use.

Language is not a fixed and immutable entity but rather a dynamic and socially influenced process. Dividing the linguistic world into rigid categories of native and non-native speakers not only oversimplifies a complex reality but also risks hindering a more equitable and inclusive approach to language teaching, which should embrace the richness of multilingualism and the diverse linguistic backgrounds of all learners.

History of the concept

The concept of the "Native Speaker" (NS) has long been a subject of debate in applied linguistics. According to Davies (2004), this debate gained momentum when Chomsky (1965) introduced the idea of the native speaker from a theoretical linguistic perspective, framing native speaker competence as the ultimate stage of language development. In this view, everyone is considered a native speaker of at least one language, and native speaker status is considered an ideal and stable benchmark. This statement ideally views language as an entity without considering any variations or special proficiency levels.

As Zhang (2021) observes, individuals who identify as native speakers of the same language may have very different perceptions of their own linguistic abilities, challenging the notion of a uniform norm for native speakers.

Over time, other scholars have sought to explain the inequalities linked to native speakerism from different perspectives. Phillipson (1992), for instance, introduced the Center–Periphery model, in which dominant English-speaking countries like the United Kingdom, the United States, and Australia constitute the Center, while countries where English is learned as a foreign language are positioned in the Periphery. This model highlights the dependent relationship between these two groups, suggesting that the educational practices and linguistic norms of the Center are imposed on the Periphery.

Critics such as Kubota (2001) and Pennycook (2017) have pointed out how the dominance of native speakers in ELT creates power imbalances, favoring certain groups at the expense of others. This has direct consequences on language education, influencing educational policies, job opportunities, and even the self-esteem of students and teachers.

The growing role of English as a global lingua franca, and the fact that non-native speakers now outnumber native speakers, have prompted a re-evaluation of the assumption that native speakers are the ideal language users and teachers.This shift has brought attention to the need to deconstruct the myth of the native speaker’s linguistic and pedagogical superiority.

One of the most persistent effects of this ideology can be seen in how second language learners are evaluated. There is often a tendency to rely on a monolithic and static conception of language, where the native speaker is treated as the unquestioned norm. This model creates a dichotomy in which second language users' performance is perceived as inferior and prone to errors in comparison. This reflects what Bley-Vroman (1983) termed the Comparative Fallacy—the flawed assumption that the only valid benchmark for second language competence is native speaker performance.

Although the concept was introduced decades ago, it remains highly relevant to current discussions on native speakerism, as it underscores how these comparisons obscure the actual multilingual and strategic language use of learners. In reality, second language users are often bilingual or multilingual, drawing on diverse linguistic resources in flexible ways. Similarly, many native speakers themselves possess multilingual competencies shaped by regional varieties, additional languages, or other sociolinguistic factors. These realities challenge rigid, idealized distinctions between native and non-native speakers and call for a more inclusive, dynamic, and context-sensitive understanding of language proficiency.

Definitions

The term "native speakerism" was coined by applied linguist Adrian Holliday, who defines it as “a pervasive ideology within English Language Teaching, characterized by the belief that 'native-speaker' teachers represent a 'Western culture' from which spring the ideals both of the English language and of English language teaching methodology” (Holliday, 2005, p. 385).

This ideology positions native speakers—often from major English-speaking countries—as the ideal linguistic and cultural models, reinforcing assumptions about linguistic purity and superiority.

However, linguists such as David Crystal have challenged the notion of a fixed or "pure" native speaker. In a talk titled “The Myth of the Native Speaker,” Crystal notes:

“There was never a native speaker in the sense of somebody who hasn’t been influenced by some sort of local variation—mixed accents and all sorts of influences.” Available online: The myth of the native speaker (with David Crystal)

Other scholars, including Jennifer Jenkins and George Braine, have criticized the native/non-native dichotomy on both linguistic and sociopolitical grounds:

Linguistic argument: Jenkins (2000) points out that the categories of native and non-native are overly simplistic and linguistically unsound. Many speakers grow up in multilingual environments or acquire high levels of English proficiency without being considered "native."
Sociopolitical argument: Braine (1999), drawing on Kramsch, argues that these terms are ideologically constructed to preserve a privileged group—namely, those born in English-dominant countries—while excluding other competent educators based solely on birthplace or accent. This privileging also extends to specific standard varieties of English, particularly British and American English, which are positioned as the most legitimate or prestigious models, thereby reinforcing linguistic hierarchies within English Language Teaching.

Regardless of its geographical location, the ideology of native speakerism is not limited to the English language and can be adopted or challenged in various ways within any educational context.

Practical examples

This section provides real-world examples and multimedia resources to help learners and educators better understand the concept of native speakerism in English Language Teaching (ELT). These activities can be used in teacher training, applied linguistics courses, or professional development workshops.

1. Video Reflection: Should You Try to Sound Like a Native?

Link: Should you try to sound like a native speaker? (@thenonnativespeaker767)

This short video challenges the idea that sounding like a native speaker should be the ultimate goal in language learning.

Suggested Activity:

Watch the video and discuss the following:
- What assumptions does the speaker challenge?
- How might this reflect or resist native speakerism?
- In what ways can pronunciation goals be redefined more inclusively?

2. Teacher Testimonies: The Non-Native Speaker YouTube Channel

Link: The Non Native Speaker (@thenonnativespeaker767)

This channel shares personal stories and reflections from a non-native English teacher navigating the profession.

Suggested Activity:

Choose one video in any language and summarize the key message.
Reflect on how does the speaker's identity shape their teaching experience
What are the visible impacts of native speakerism in the classroom or professional context?

3. Case Study: Discrimination in Hiring Practices

Quote from a real rejection message:

“We are only allowed to hire native speaker[s]. I am so sorry as your CV is really interesting.”

Source: Teacher sues over native-speakerism (EL Gazette Article 28th February 2022 by Gerald Nikolai Smith)

Suggested Activity:

Read the article and discuss:

Should job offers specify “native speakers only”?
What alternative hiring criteria would promote equity?
How could policies change to value multilingual expertise?

4. Social Media Advocacy: Rachel Tsateri on LinkedIn

Link to post: View Post (2022)

Social media can be a powerful space for educators to share their experiences and advocate for fairness in ELT.

Suggested Activity:

Read the post and a few comments.
Discuss the tone and content of professional responses.
What kinds of arguments are used to support or reject native speakerism?

5. Visual Mapping Activity: Who Is Considered a Native Speaker?

Description:

Create a visual map that explores different varieties of English and challenges the binary distinction between native and non-native speakers.

Suggestions:

Include diverse English varieties (e.g., Singaporean English, Jamaican English, Welsh English)
Identify the assumptions behind native speaker labels

Take-home messages

Native speakerism is more than a hiring bias; it's an ideology. It promotes the belief that so-called "native speakers" are the best models. This often reinforces cultural and linguistic hierarchies, privileging Western norms and marginalizing highly qualified non-native English-speaking educators.
Uncritical preference for native speakers limits equity in ELT. Many educational institutions prioritize native-speaking teachers based on assumptions rather than evidence. This overlooks the pedagogical skills, intercultural awareness, and lived experience that non-native teachers can bring to the classroom.
Authenticity in language teaching must be redefined. “Authentic” materials and models should not be limited to native speaker norms. Instead, authenticity should reflect the real-world diversity of English users and embrace global varieties of English, multilingual realities, and learner identities.

Self-assessment

Resources to go further

Llurda, E. (Ed.). (2005). Non-native language teachers: Perceptions, challenges and contributions to the profession. Springer.
Slavkov, N., Melo-Pfeifer, S., & Kerschhofer-Puhalo, N. (Eds.). (2021). The changing face of the “native speaker”: Perspectives from multilingualism and globalization (Vol. 31). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG.
Rudolph, N., Selvi, A. F., & Yazan, B. (2015). Conceptualizing and confronting inequity: Approaches within and beyond native speakerism. In A. F. Selvi (Ed.), Critical perspectives on global Englishes in ELT (pp. 1–17). Springer.

Other studies have examined how native speakerism operates in specific educational settings. For instance, Maganaka (2023) explores how hiring practices in ELT reflect discriminatory attitudes against non-native teachers, whereas Derivy-Plard (2011) and Dupouy and Wilson (2024) investigate how native-speaker ideologies affect language teaching and perception in the French university context.

Derivy-Plard, M. (2011). Enseignants « natifs/non-natifs » : vers une professionnalité des enseignants de langue(s). Compétences d’enseignant à l’épreuve des profils d'apprenants, vers une ingénierie de formation, 35–46.
Dupouy, M., & Wilson, A. (2024). Accents et idéologies linguistiques dans l’enseignement/apprentissage du FLE/S et de l’anglais à l’université en France. Mélanges CRAPEL, 44, 1–22.
Maganaka, A. (2023). Native speakerism and employment discrimination in English language teaching. Canadian Journal for New Scholars in Education, 14(1), 119–130.

Bibliography

Bley-Vroman, R. (1983). The comparative fallacy in interlanguage studies: The case of systematicity. Language Learning, 33(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1983.tb00983.x

Braine, G. (2010). Non-native-speaker English teachers: Research, pedagogy, and professional growth. Routledge.

Holliday, A. (2006). Native-speakerism. ELT Journal, 60(4), 385–387. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccl030

Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.21236/AD0616323

Holliday, A. (1994). Appropriate methodology and social context. Cambridge University Press.

Holliday, A. (2005). The struggle to teach English as an international language. Oxford University Press.

Holliday, A. (2014). Native speakerism. In The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0855

Holliday, A. (2015). Native-speakerism: Taking the concept forward and achieving cultural belief. In S. A. Houghton & D. Rivers (Eds.), (En)countering native-speakerism: Global perspectives (pp. 11–25). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137414380_2

Jenkins, J. (1996). Native speaker, non-native and English as a foreign language: Time for a change. ELT Journal, 50(4), 317–320. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/50.4.317

Kubota, R., & Lin, A. (2009). Race, culture, and identities in second language education: Introduction to research and practice. In R. Kubota & A. Lin (Eds.), Race, culture, and identities in second language education: Exploring critically engaged practice (pp. 1–24). Routledge.

Kubota, R. (2001). Discursive construction of the images of U.S. classrooms. TESOL Quarterly, 35(1), 9–37. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587856

Llurda, E., & Calvet-Terré, J. (2024). Native-speakerism and non-native second language teachers. In P. Garrett & J. M. Cots (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of language and identity (2nd ed.). Routledge.

Norton, B. (2013). Identity and language learning: Extending the conversation (2nd ed.). Multilingual Matters.

Paikeday, T. M., & Chomsky, N. (1985). The native speaker is dead!: An informal discussion of a linguistic myth with Noam Chomsky and other linguists, philosophers, psychologists, and lexicographers. Paikeday Publishing.

Pennycook, A. (2017). The cultural politics of English as an international language (2nd ed.). Routledge.

Phillipson, R. (1992). Linguistic imperialism. Oxford University Press.

Zhang, H. (2021). The term “native speaker”: Myth or reality? Acceptable or problematic? Nuanced Garbling. https://unimelbling.github.io/journal/2021/journal-articles/the-term-of-native-speaker.pdf

Credits

This resource has been created by Projet PEP (discuss • contribs) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission)

Diego Cortes Velasquez (Universitá Roma Tre)
Logambal Souprayen-Cavery (Université de La Réunion)

	The belief that teachers should possess near-native proficiency to be effective language instructors.
	The ideology that native speakers represent the ideal model for language learning and teaching.
	The assumption that native-speaking teachers naturally create more authentic learning environments than non-native speakers.
	A viewpoint that values cultural immersion over pedagogical training in second language education.

	It privileges native English speakers in hiring practices, often regardless of their teaching qualifications.
	It ensures that non-native English teachers are given additional training to match native speaker standards.
	It standardizes global English teaching methods based on the most effective pedagogical research.
	It promotes global equity by setting a consistent standard for English language instruction across regions.

Point added for a correct answer:
Points for an incorrect answer:
Ignore the questions' coefficients:

	Jenkins
	Holliday
	Braine
	Phillipson