Multilingual awareness - Language awareness - Metacompetencies

Plurilingual education portal

Subject classification: this is an education resource.

Type classification: this resource is a course.

Starting activity

Read the following short scenario:

You teach English in a multilingual class in the first year of learning. A pupil introduces himself and says: ‘I have 10 years old.’ The pupil's mother tongue is Spanish and he is also learning French. You know that in many languages, such as Spanish or French, age is expressed with the verb ‘to have’ (e.g. ‘Tengo 20 años’ or ‘J'ai 20 ans’).

Why is it important to understand the differences in language structures when learning a new language?
How can you make targeted use of linguistic errors that arise from transfer from other languages to promote metalinguistic skills such as language awareness and an understanding of multilingualism among your learners – instead of simply correcting them?
What strategies can be used to help students transfer their knowledge from one language to another?

Objectives

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

clearly distinguish between metalinguistic awareness, language awareness, and meta-competence, understanding their theoretical foundations and historical development.
recognize the importance of language awareness in multilingual contexts.
explore how metalinguistic and metacognitive processes support language acquisition, especially in multilingual contexts.
reflect on how multilingual learners may develop enhanced metalinguistic and metacognitive abilities, and how these can be leveraged pedagogically.

Key Words

metalinguistic knowledge, language reflection, language learning, language development, language skills, language identity, multilingualism, consciousness-raising, pragmatics

Introduction

The terms metalinguistic awareness, meta-skills (metacognition), and language awareness refer to distinct yet interconnected cognitive abilities and pedagogical approaches related to language and learning. While "meta-competence" broadly encompasses self-regulatory processes of thinking and learning, "metalinguistic awareness" and "language awareness" specifically delve into conscious knowledge and reflection about language itself. Understanding their historical development helps to clarify their nuanced meanings and applications across various fields, including language education, linguistics, psychology, and cognitive neuroscience.

History of the concept

The concepts of metalinguistic awareness, metacompetence (as part of metacognition), and language awareness describe different but interrelated cognitive abilities and pedagogical approaches in the field of language and learning. Their development has often followed a parallel or overlapping path.

A. Metalinguistic Awareness (MA)

Historically, scholars like Wilhelm von Humboldt and Otto Jespersen emphasized the importance of reflecting on language for deeper learning. Early research on bilingual children—such as Ronjat (1913) and Leopold (1939–1949)—suggested that bilingualism can enhance metalinguistic insight. Ianco-Worrall (1972) later provided experimental evidence showing that bilinguals often outperform monolinguals in tasks requiring metalinguistic reasoning.

A widely accepted model by Bialystok and Ryan (1985) describes MA as having two core dimensions:

Analyzed knowledge: the ability to explicitly describe language structures.
Cognitive control: the capacity to monitor and reflect on language use.

Recent studies (e.g., Kieseier et al., 2022) further divide MA into four key areas: phonological, word, syntactic, and pragmatic awareness. Together, these skills support learners in navigating and understanding language more flexibly—especially in multilingual settings.

B. Meta-Competence (Metacognition)

The roots of meta-competence can be traced back to the work of Lev Vygotsky, who emphasized the importance of self-awareness and internal dialogue in cognitive development. Building on this foundation, researchers have identified several key components of meta-competence:

Meta-learning: Awareness and control of one’s own learning strategies and processes.
Meta-attention: The ability to consciously direct and sustain attention.
Meta-memory: Monitoring and managing memory functions, such as recalling information or recognizing when something has been forgotten.
Social metacognition: Understanding and anticipating the thoughts, knowledge, or misunderstandings of others—an essential skill in collaborative learning and communication.

These metacognitive skills are particularly valuable in language learning, where learners must often reflect on their progress, identify gaps in understanding, and adjust their strategies accordingly. In multilingual contexts, meta-competence supports learners in navigating between languages, transferring knowledge, and developing greater autonomy and self-regulation in their learning journey.

C. Language Awareness (LA)

Language awareness emerged in the United Kingdom in the 1970s, particularly in response to educational challenges identified in the Bullock Report (1975), which called for greater integration of language knowledge across the curriculum.

The concept gained momentum through the work of Eric Hawkins, who in the 1980s advocated for a more analytical and reflective approach to language learning. He proposed that learners should develop an understanding of how language works—not only in the target language but also in their mother tongue and other languages they may know. This comparative approach was seen as a way to foster curiosity, deepen linguistic understanding, and prepare learners for future language acquisition.

The Association for Language Awareness (ALA), founded in 1994, defines LA as “explicit knowledge about language, and conscious perception and sensitivity in language learning, language teaching, and language use.” This definition highlights both the cognitive and affective dimensions of language awareness, including sensitivity to language variation, multilingualism, and the social implications of language use.

Over time, the concept has evolved to include more critical perspectives:

Critical Language Awareness (CLA), developed by scholars such as Norman Fairclough and Ursula Clark, focuses on the relationship between language and power. It encourages learners to question how language shapes identity, reinforces social hierarchies, and reflects ideological positions.
Critical Multilingual Language Awareness (CMLA) builds on this by addressing how multilingual speakers, particularly those from minoritized backgrounds, are positioned within societal structures. It promotes an inclusive view of linguistic diversity and challenges deficit-oriented perspectives on non-standard or non-dominant language varieties.

Today, language awareness is recognized as a key component of inclusive and reflective language education, especially in multilingual and multicultural classrooms. It empowers learners to become more conscious, critical, and confident users of language in diverse contexts.

Definitions

A. Metalinguistic Awareness (MA)

Metalinguistic awareness is the ability to reflect on and discuss language as a system. It involves consciously thinking about how language works—its grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and use in context. This includes awareness of different linguistic levels, such as:

Phonological (sounds and sound patterns),
Morphological (word formation),
Syntactic (sentence structure),
Semantic (meaning), and
Pragmatic (language use in social situations).

Ramirez et al. (2013) define metalinguistic awareness as the ability to “distance oneself from the content of speech in order to reflect upon and manipulate the structure of language.” In other words, it allows learners to step back from what is being said and focus on how it is being said.

Metalinguistic awareness is often considered a subdomain of metacognition, as it involves both reflection and control over language use. It enables learners to analyze linguistic forms, recognize patterns, and correct errors—skills that are essential for both first and additional language learning.

Subcategories of metalinguistic awareness include:

Phonological awareness
Morphological and syntactic awareness
Semantic and pragmatic awareness

This ability is particularly well-developed in bilingual and multilingual learners, who are regularly exposed to multiple linguistic systems. Such exposure often enhances their sensitivity to language structure and their ability to compare and reflect on different languages.

B. Meta-Competence (Metacognition)

Meta-competence refers to a set of higher-order, overarching abilities that enable individuals to reflect on, monitor, and regulate their own thinking and learning processes. Closely linked to the broader field of metacognition, it is often described as “knowledge about one’s own knowledge.” Meta-competence encompasses not only cognitive skills but also interpersonal and professional dimensions, supporting learners in becoming more autonomous, strategic, and reflective.

According to Bogo et al. (2012), meta-competence includes the capacity for critical thinking, self-reflection, and strategic learning—skills that are essential for lifelong learning and professional development.

Key components of meta-competence include:

Meta-learning: Awareness and regulation of one’s own learning strategies
Meta-attention: The ability to consciously direct and sustain attention
Meta-memory: Monitoring and managing memory processes
Social metacognition: Understanding and anticipating others’ cognitive perspectives

These abilities are particularly relevant in language education, where learners must reflect on their progress, evaluate their understanding, and adapt strategies to navigate between languages and contexts. Meta-competence thus plays a vital role in fostering self-regulated learning and enhancing learners’ ability to transfer knowledge across linguistic and cultural boundaries.

C. Language Awareness (LA)

Language awareness is a pedagogical and cognitive concept that emphasizes the conscious understanding of language, its structures, functions, and social dimensions.

Language awareness (LA) refers to the explicit knowledge of language and the conscious perception and sensitivity in language learning, teaching, and use. It is both a mental attribute and a pedagogical approach.

Modern definitions of LA highlight its active and reflective nature. Eichler and Nold (2007) stress that LA develops through conscious engagement with language, enabling learners to apply rules explicitly, reflect on grammar, and correct errors. It also supports implicit learning through intuitive language use.

Environmental factors also play a role: children growing up in multilingual settings are more likely to notice linguistic diversity and engage in imitation, which enhances their sensitivity to language variation (Bailey & Osipova, 2016).

A recent perspective (Marr & Collins, 2023) expands LA to include the ability to adapt language use to context and to recognize the presence of non-dominant languages in school environments—languages that learners may carry as part of their identity.

It is crucial to recognize that the terms "language awareness," "metalinguistic awareness," and "knowledge about language (KAL)" have often been used interchangeably or as synonyms in the literature. Different research fields also adhere to different terminological traditions; for example, "language awareness" and "knowledge about language" are more common in language teaching and teacher education, while "metalinguistic awareness" or "metalinguistic knowledge" are more prevalent in linguistics. This inconsistency can lead to confusion, as the same terms may carry slightly different connotations for different researchers. For instance, "teacher metalinguistic awareness (TMA)" and "TLA" have been used to refer to the same aspect of teacher cognition (Roehr-Brackin, 2025).

Practical examples

“Awakening to Languages" (AtL) and other pluralistic approaches can promote multilingual metalinguistic awareness by exposing learners to various languages. Through activities like comparing greetings, exploring alphabets, analyzing multilingual signs, and discussing word origins, students reflect on language structures and develop a deeper understanding of linguistic diversity.
Differentiated teaching approaches are essential for fostering language awareness and written expression across diverse learning contexts. Teachers can guide learners to reflect on linguistic structures and meanings by posing thought-provoking questions and drawing connections to literature, cultural knowledge, or contemporary media. For example, asking “Why does the author choose this expression?” or “What cultural significance does this reference hold?” encourages learners to critically examine language and use it more consciously. This approach supports both early language acquisition and advanced levels of education, and is effective in multilingual and intercultural learning environments.
The linguistic landscape – written languages visible in public spaces – serves as a valuable resource for language learning and raising language awareness. Examples include analyzing public signs that contain indirect speech acts, wordplay (like "La Supera" and "¡Somos la pera!" in Spanish, blending "super" with "pear" and implying "the bee's knees") or grammatical differences between languages.
Visual methods are increasingly used in applied language research to explore multilingual identities and language awareness. These methods, such as drawings and visual narratives, help learners reflect on past experiences, imagine future scenarios, and visualize their language use and identity construction, including perceptions of different languages. For instance, a student teacher's drawing showing "EFL as a key to the world" or a "multilingual and intercultural EFL classroom" illustrates emergent language teaching constellations.
Digital tools and social media offer new avenues for impacting language awareness. Features like written 'conversation' or the ability to revise text can promote explicit noticing of language features, recognition, and correction of errors, enhancing language awareness as a process.

Take home messages

Fundamental to Language Development: Metalinguistic awareness is a crucial element in both first and second language acquisition and development, enabling conscious engagement with language structure and function.
Beyond "Language About Language": It is not merely language that talks about language; rather, metalinguistic activity actively creates, structures, and forms ongoing speech and discourse.
Multifaceted and Interconnected: Metalinguistic awareness is a complex construct with cognitive, affective, and social dimensions, influencing and being influenced by learning context and individual factors.
Strong Link to Literacy: There is a well-documented connection between metalinguistic awareness and the development of literacy skills, including reading comprehension, writing, and spelling.
Benefits of Multilingualism: Bilingualism and multilingualism are shown to enhance metalinguistic awareness, providing cognitive advantages such as stronger phonological awareness and a more explicit understanding of how language systems work.
Empowering Pedagogy: Language Awareness approaches in education foster independent and critical thinking about language, moving beyond traditional, rule-based instruction towards a more discovery-oriented learning process.
Addressing Inequality: These approaches can play a vital role in challenging linguistic inequalities and promoting inclusivity by validating learners' diverse linguistic repertoires, especially for speakers of minority languages

Self-assessment

Resources to go further

Webinar by Heather Benucci about Discovering Grammar with Consciousness-raising Tasks (2013), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=15ykiMq-qW8

Association for Language Awareness (2025): https://languageawareness.org/

Finkbeiner, C., & White, J. (2017). Language awareness and multilingualism: A historical overview. In J. Cenoz, D. Gorter & S. May (Eds.), Language Awareness and Multilingualism: Third Edition (3-18). Springer.

Gürsoy, E. (2020). Language Awareness und Mehrsprachigkeit, https://www.uni-due.de/imperia/md/content/prodaz/la.pdf

McConachy, T. (2022). Language Awareness and Intercultural Communicative Competence. In T. McConachy, I. Golubeva & M. Wagner (Eds.), Intercultural Learning in Language Education and Beyond: Evolving Concepts, Perspectives and Practices (22-40). Multilingual Matters.

Van den Broek, E., Oolbekkink-Marchand, H., van Kemenade, A., Meijera, P. & Unsworth, S. (2022). Stimulating language awareness in the foreign language classroom: Exploring EFL teaching practices. The Language Learning Journal, 50(1), 59–73. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337171510_Stimulating_language_awareness_in_the_foreign_language_classroom_Exploring_EFL_teaching_practices

Woll, N., & Paquet, P.-L. (2021). Developing crosslinguistic awareness through plurilingual consciousness-raising tasks. Language Teaching Research, 29(1), 63-87. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211056544.

Bibliography

Bailey, A. L. & Osipova, A. V. (2016). Children’s multilingual development and education: Fostering linguistic resources in home and school contexts. Cambridge University Press.

Bialystok, E., & Ryan, E. B. (1985). Toward a Definition of Metalinguistic Skill. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 31(3), 229–251. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23086295

Bogo, M., Katz, E., Regehr, C., Logie, C., Mylopoulos, M., & Tufford, L. (2012). Toward Understanding Meta-Competence: An Analysis of Students’ Reflection on their Simulated Interviews. Social Work Education, 32(2), 259–273. https://doi.org/10.1080/02615479.2012.738662

Eichler, W. & Nold, G. (2007). Sprachbewusstheit (Beltz-Pädagogik). In B. Beck & E. Klieme (Hrsg.), Sprachliche Kompetenzen: Konzepte und Messung: DESI-Studie (Deutsch Englisch Schülerleistungen International) (63–82). Beltz Verlag.

Kieseier, T., Thoma, D., Vogelbacher, M., & Holger, H. (2022). Differential effects of metalinguistic awareness components in early foreign language acquisition of English vocabulary and grammar. Language Awareness, 31(4), 495–514. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658416.2022.2093888

Marr, T. & Collins, S. (2023). Language Awareness at School. A Practical Guide for Teachers and School Learners. Routledge.

Roehr-Brackin, K. (2025). Measuring children’s metalinguistic awareness. Language Teaching, 58(1), 27-43.

Credits

This resource has been created by Projet PEP (discuss • contribs) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) :

Eftychia Damaskou (University of Thessaly)
Theresa Bogensperger (Paris Londron Universität Salzburg)

Portal: Plurilingual education

	It focuses only on vocabulary acquisition.
	It involves unconscious language processing.
	It enables reflection on and manipulation of language structures.
	It refers to the ability to speak multiple languages fluently.

	He introduced phonetic transcription into schools.
	He emphasized the importance of comparing L1 and foreign languages.
	He developed a theory of bilingual advantage.
	He focused on memory training for vocabulary learning.

	The ability to memorize grammar rules.
	The capacity to reflect on and regulate one’s own learning and thinking.
	The skill of translating between languages.
	The unconscious acquisition of language patterns.

	Because children in such environments are forced to learn grammar earlier.
	Because multilingual settings reduce the need for formal language instruction.
	Because children are more likely to notice linguistic diversity and imitate different language patterns.
	Because multilingual children avoid making language-related mistakes.

	They refer to completely unrelated concepts.
	They are used interchangeably across different disciplines.
	They are only relevant in early childhood education.
	They were all introduced by the same researcher.

Starting activity

Objectives

Key Words

Table of contents

Introduction

History of the concept

A. Metalinguistic Awareness (MA)

B. Meta-Competence (Metacognition)

C. Language Awareness (LA)

Definitions

A. Metalinguistic Awareness (MA)

B. Meta-Competence (Metacognition)

C. Language Awareness (LA)

Practical examples

Take home messages

Self-assessment

Resources to go further

Bibliography

Credits