Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-determination theory and military veteran reintegration

Self-determination theory and military veteran reintegration:
How does autonomy, competence and relatedness shape psychological adjustment after military service?

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Overview

Scenario

What happens when the thing that gave your life structure suddenly vanishes?

For many military veterans, leaving the service gains them freedom, but freedom can also bring uncertainty.

After 15 years of military service including posting and deployments, a veteran returns home expecting civilian life to feel like freedom (see Figure 1)

. Instead, freedom feels disorientating. For over a decade, their days were shaped by established routines, explicit expectations, clear responsibilities, a sense of belonging and being part of a team. Roles were understood. Decisions had purposes. Belonging was built into day-to-day life. The team was your support. Then, almost, overnight, the rules had changed. There are no longer orders telling them what needs to be done, no team waiting or relying on them, and no familiar structure defining what it means to be successful. Decisions that were once straightforward, now require navigating through uncertainty and often with little guidance or support. The confidence they had developed through military service may not cleanly translate into civilian life, whilst the relationships that brought connection and belonging may suddenly be hundreds or thousands of kilometres away. Disconnection is real. What was supposed to be liberation has now become a profound psychological adjustment. Self-determination theory provides an understanding of why.

If military life has shaped how a veteran experiences autonomy, relatedness and competence, what happens when the life that once supported or constrained these needs is removed?

Military to civilian transition [introduction to difficulties they experience and challenges they may face]:
Military-to-civilian transition is a major period of adjustment that brings an increased likelihood of psychosocial risk. This transition involves simultaneous changes to daily structure, social relationships, occupational roles, their identity and sources of purpose.
Findings by Romanik, et al. 2024 showed 78% of Australian defence members experienced a difficult transition, and 50% were still struggling after 10 years, highlighting that this transition can have long-term implications to their wellbeing (Carra, et al. 2022)
Veterans may experience feelings of cultural dislocation, emotional distress and identity disorientation which can be linked to the loss of structured military roles and routines. They may also experience social alienation when attempting to rebuild relationships, re-establish belongings, and adapt to unfamiliar social norms beyond the military sphere. The current known challenges that ADF members experience are cumulative effects of trauma and stress, moral injury to beliefs and expectations, stigma, and impaired help seeking (Kerr, et al 2022) along with the loss of relationships.
For those that may have left involuntarily often tend to experience difficulties in translating military skills into employment, and have a perceived lack of competence (Kerr, et al 2022). These challenges and difficulties may influence veterans' motivation and psychological wellbeing.
SDT as the theoretical framework [introducing main theory that will be discussed throughout chapter]:
SDT is a useful framework and provides a key blueprint for understanding the motivational basis of personality and social behaviour, along with the relation of basic psychological needs for wellbeing, psychological flourishing and positive quality of life (Deci, Ryan 2022).
SDT proposes that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are basic psychological needs that contribute to individuals' wellbeing and adaptive functioning. Satisfaction of these needs will contribute to positive wellbeing, whereas, frustration can contribute to negative psychological outcomes (Ryan, et al. 2022).
This chapter will therefore utilise SDT to examine how changes associated with military to civilian reintegration may influence these three psychological needs.
Reintegration and psychological adjustment [what do these three needs affect]: Following discharge (or voluntary leaving) veterans may need to reconstruct these psychological needs within unfamiliar civilian environments.
Employment difficulties may then challenge competence, whilst their loss of military relationships and identity may undermine their belonging and relatedness. Greater freedom may support their autonomy, but can also create uncertainty without their consistent military structure (Carra, et al. 2022).
This book chapter will therefore examine how these changes may shape veterans' psychological adjustment during reintegration and consider how understanding veterans' psychological needs can inform approaches/implementations to supporting successful transitions.

Author note: depending on how book chapter flows along with word count, the following 'sections' may be included in the overview and structured accordingly.

Military service and psychological needs (Carra et al. 2022): transitions can have a significant adverse effect on veterans' wellbeing. The transitions usually involve simultaneous changes across multiple aspects of their life, this includes, their identity, finances, occupation, residences, routines, relationships and social support. These changes may accumulate to an increase in vulnerability to psychological distress and mental health difficulties. Research has highlighted the importance of providing suitable transition support to effectively assist veterans in navigating these changes and adapting comfortably in civilian life.

Focus Questions

1. How does Self Determination Theory explain psychological adjustment during military-to-civilian transition?

2. How does satisfaction or frustration of autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape veterans' motivation and emotional wellbeing?

3. How military experiences and reintegration shape autonomy, competence, and relatedness?

4. How can Self Determination Theory informed interventions support psychological need satisfaction and successful reintegration?

How does Self Determination Theory explain psychological adjustment during military-to-civilian transition?

Military-to-civilian transition involves a substantial change to veterans' occupational roles, relationships, routines, identity and their overall sense of purpose.
These changes challenge veterans' wellbeing, motivation, wellbeing and psychological adjustment as they adapt to a new environment.
Therefore understanding the psychological processes underlying this transition is essential and Self Determination Theory (SDT) provides a framework to examine how changes in the environment shape veterans' psychological needs and adjustment.

What is Self Determination Theory (SDT)?

Self determination theory (SDT) focuses on three basic psychological needs and varied forms of motivation (autonomous to controlled). Provides a blueprint for understanding the motivational basis of personality and social behaviour, along with the relation of basic psychological needs for psychological flourishing, positive well-being and positive quality of life (Ryan et al. 2022).
Autonomy is the core psychological need to feel like the author of your own life, those that are autonomous want their actions to match their true values and choices rather than being forced or controlled by external pressures. Competence refers to feeling effective and satisfactory in their capacity, is not an attained skill or capability but is instead a felt sense of confidence. Relatedness refers to feeling connected to others and caring for and by others, along with having a sense of belongingness in both with other individuals and with their community (Ryan et al. 2022).
Need satisfaction vs. need frustration. Need satisfaction drives psychological growth and well-being whilst need frustration (active blocking of these needs), can cause distress, maladaptive behaviours and ill-being (Olafsen, et al. 2021). See table 1 below for a more in-depth explanation of these needs.

Table 1. Need Satisfaction vs Need Frustration (Olafasen, et al. 2021)
	Autonomy	Competence	Relatedness
Need satisfaction	experiencing choice, self-direction, freedom in ones' actions	experiencing mastery, capability and effectiveness in skills.	feeling a warm, secure and mutual care with others.
Need frustration	feeling controlled, pressured or compelled to act in an unwanted way	feeling incompetent, facing frequent failure and doubting abilities.	experiencing loneliness, alienation, and social exclusion.

SDT also focuses on different forms of motivation which range from autonomous to controlled motivation and how the outcome relates to vitality, engagement, performance and psychological health (Loverre, et al. 2024). Autonomous motivation includes intrinsic motivation and fully internalised extrinsic motivation whilst controlled motivation involves external demands or internal pressures (Rybakovaite, et al. 2021).
SDT offers a unique explanatory value by connecting environmental changes to motivation, wellbeing, and psychological need satisfaction. Many theories try to explain identity, resource loss or group motivation as a primary motivator, SDT helps explain why changes influence veterans' psychological adjustment.

The Military Environment

Characterised by routines, clearly defined roles, hierarchy, rules, expectations, collective goals and a sense of purpose, thus, creating a highly structured social environment.
The structured roles, occupation and training responsibilities may support competence, purpose and effectiveness, whilst, their teamwork and unit cohesion along with shared military identity may support their relatedness and belonging.
However, their hierarchy, externally imposed responsibilities and rules may create tensions with autonomy, and could influence the extent to which motivation is either autonomous or controlled.
Therefore, military experiences may simultaneously constrain and support psychological needs rather than being universally positive or negative.

How does satisfaction or frustration of autonomy, competence and relatedness shape veterans' motivation and emotional wellbeing?

Psychology need satisfaction provides a mechanism with social environments may either positively or negatively alter their wellbeing, motivation, and psychological adjustment during their transition.
SDT conceptualises motivation along a continuum of self-determination, it ranges from intrinsic motivation and forms of autonomous extrinsic motivation to then controlled forms of extrinsic motivation and amotivation.

Autonomy and the experience of choice

SDT identifies autonomy as a psychological need that concerns psychological self-direction, freedom, and experiencing one's actions as congruent and self-endorsed with their values and interests.
Autonomy refers to the feeling of psychological freedom and self-directions of one's thoughts, actions and feelings.
Military hierarchy does not inherently undermine or satisfy autonomy. Anatomy can be experienced within structured environments, by endorsing externally induced requests by clearly understanding the meaning and purpose behind the demanded activity. Autonomy satisfaction is critical human growth and has been linked to strong levels of individual wellbeing, life satisfaction and vitality (Grimell, 2024).
Autonomy frustration can occur when military personnel sense of volition is actively undermined, this could be due to micromanagement or heavy restrictions which can correlate to internal conflicts and/or a passive/resistant mindset. This contributes to a negative psychological outcomes with links to controlled motivation, mental health issues and higher discharge rates. Further, autonomy frustration can lead to reduced trust, unit cohesion and initiative (Grimell, 2024).
Whilst transition from military to civilian life, veterans may move from an environment strongly characterised by externally prescribed relationships and structured expectations/routines, therefore, they will have a greater responsibility when it comes to employment, relationships and future goals.
Notably, greater choice does not equate to greater autonomy as whilst choices may create opportunities, choice alone does not guarantee autonomy. Especially, if veterans feel pressure, lack meaningful alternatives and have a level of uncertainty when it comes to navigating civilian life.

Competence and the sense of capability

Competence satisfaction refers to experiencing 'mastery', growth and effectiveness in skills. In the military this could translate to feeling effective and capable of mastering tactical, physical and technical demands. Frustration involves feeling ineffective, unable to succeed and incapable (Tillberg, et al. 2026).
Military training and their clearly defined roles may provide opportunities for feedback and achievement, which would help support competence.
However, transition may challenge these experiences when veterans encounter unfamiliar workplaces and/or struggle to communicate and translate their skills effectively. Study highlighted that a significant challenge for veterans' perceived competence was translating their military skills into civilian employment. However, successful job-search experiences, or discharging straight into a job may help restore/improve competence. Therefore, successful employment may have psychological influence beyond just financial security and could provide purpose, competence and structure (Tillberg, et al. 2026).

Relatedness and the need to belong

Relatedness satisfaction involves mutual care, belonging and connections, whilst frustration can bring rejection, loneliness, alienation or exclusion.
Military service is known for providing strong sources of relatedness through unit cohesion, teamwork, shared military identity and experiences. Leaving the military has been found to disrupt established social networks and require veterans to develop new sources of connection within civilian communities (Barnett, et al. 2021).
Maintaining military connections may support some veterans in the transition, however, developing civilian social identities may be important for long-term adjustment.

Motivation and wellbeing

The satisfaction of autonomy, competence and relatedness are essential for optimal functioning and wellbeing. The satisfaction of these needs provide positive organisational outcomes with a more positive attitude and less turnover intentions, stronger psychological understanding, and more positive health and overall well-being. Satisfaction of these needs also create a higher likelihood of intrinsic motivation (Linden, et al. 2026).
Autonomous motivation includes intrinsic motivation and positive internalised forms of extrinsic motivation, controlled motivation comprises of internal contingencies or external pressure. This distinction may be significant to veterans establishing new employment, social, educational and personal goals following discharge (Linden, et al. 2026).
Author note: maybe incorporate the 'why' behind their behaviour and how that is either positive or detrimental to motivation

Interacting needs

Importantly, these three needs should not be considered completely independent as SDT conceptualises them as interrelated that collective contribute to optimal function and positive psychological wellbeing (Mobbs, et al. 2018).
Frustration in one area may also coincide with difficulties/challenges in another.
Author note: focus on research/studies examining the combinations and interactions between satisfaction/frustration rather than just an isolated predictor.

How does military experiences and reintegration shape autonomy, competence and relatedness?

The psychological impact of military service can be shaped by the environment in which personnel operate, including the way that structure, occupational roles, leadership and social relationships are experienced (Barnett, et al. 2022).
The military service shouldn't be viewed as uniformly supportive or restrictive, it's important to factor which environmental conditions frustrate or facilitate psychological needs.
Reintegration changes these conditions irrespective of whether they were positive or negative environments, thus, requiring veterans to navigate new experiences, expectations, relationships and roles whilst renegotiating sources of autonomy, belonging and competence, see figure 2.
Figure 2: Environmental changes experienced during military-to-civilian reintegration
SDT therefore can be used to examine the conditions to which military experiences either support or undermine psychological need satisfaction, rather than assuming that military service is inherently beneficial or harmful.

Structure, hierarchy, and autonomy

Military organisations rely heavily on rules, hierarchy, orders and clear responsibilities, shaping a high level of structure that is not often seen in civilian environments.
Structure is not inherently autonomy-thwarting as dependent as, structure can provide guidance, predictability, autonomy and clear expectations, especially, when personnel understand and endorse the purpose behind their responsibilities (Barnett, et al. 2021).
Leadership plays an integral role in satisfying autonomy (Knevelsrud, et al. 2023). In particular, autonomy-supportive leadership style is where leaders empower employees to make choices, share rationales, take perspectives and minimise unnecessary pressure. An autonomy-supportive leadership brings benefits of an higher engagement, positive wellbeing and enhanced performance (Knevelsrud, et al. 2023).
However, highly controlling environments may impede autonomy when their behaviour is experienced as pressured or coerced. This might be done through actions of micromanagement and excessive pressure, these may contribute to controlled motivation and poor psychological outcomes (Barnett, et al. 2021).
This creates an important distinction between control and structure, and that leadership style and individual interpretation.
Following either voluntary or involuntary discharge, veterans may experience substantially greater choice over relationships, future goals and employment, however, greater freedom does not necessarily equate to greater autonomy when personnel experience pressure, uncertainty or lack of meaningful alternatives.

Training, occupational roles, and competence

Military training can provide repeated opportunities and clearly defined occupation roles that enable feedback, skill development and achievement which supports competence.
Veterans may leave the service with diverse interpersonal and technical skills with a primary focus on leadership, management, communication, adaptability and teamwork. However, even though these skills can be transferable skills, it doesn't necessarily mean that veterans will experience or have their competence recognised within civilian employment and environments (Tillberg, et al. 2026).
A recurring challenge that veterans experience, is translating military-specific experience into skills that civilians will understand, this makes it challenging for veterans to confidently communicate the relevance of the capabilities. Difficulty translating skills can contribute to unsuitable employment, unemployment, despite veterans possessing valuable capabilities (Tillberg, et al. 2026).
This further highlights the important distinction between actual competence and perceived competence. Veterans may be highly capable whilst simultaneously experiencing uncertainty about their effectiveness in civilian environments.
Research from Becker, et al. 2022 involved 31 Aus Defence Force Members who had transitioned into civilian employment had identified challenges with career integration and adaptation, which further highlights the significance of organisational practices in helping veterans navigate employment and supporting longer-term retention.
From an SDT perspective, civilian employment may restore or strengthen competence through meaningful work and recognition, but could frustrate competence when their skills are overlooked or poorly aligned to available roles.
Successful vocational reintegration involves more that just securing employment, it about creating opportunities for veterans to recognise, demonstrate and develop their capabilities within their new occupational environment.

Relatedness: from military cohesion to civilian belonging

Military service provides strong opportunities for relatedness through teamwork, unit cohesion, camaraderie, shared identity and goals. Consequently, belonging can become deeply embedded within the military environment which makes the loss of these social connections during the transition incredibly significant for their psychological adjustment (Barnett, et al. 2021).
SDT has demonstrated that shared experience and collective goals can shape a strong sense of social support and belonging.
Discharge can disrupt these established networks, which requires veterans to reconstruct social connection within civilian communities.
The relationship between belonging and military identity is incredibly complex, research from Flake and Kite 2021, used data from 358 Australian Defence Members and identified that identity change during the transition process can involve themes of loss, poor wellbeing, social isolation along with psychosocial transition challenges. This is in conjunction with sometimes an unwillingness to relinquish a dominant military identity can contribute to social disconnectedness which is seen through withdrawal or antisocial behaviour and while reinforcing a divide between military and civilian life. Subsequently, a disconnectedness from both the military and civilian environments increases the likelihood of a decreased effort to re-connect psychosocially which would support personal growth. Although, some aspects of military identity were associated with stronger connectedness and belonging (Barnett, et al. 2021).
A positive, protective trait that was found in research is that veterans with personal agency, pushing beyond existing boundaries and a willingness to evolve were identified as themes/traits that are associated with an effective transition (Barnett, et al. 2021).
This continues to reinforce the idea that successful reintegration may involve a veteran's source of belonging rather that just replacing their military community with a civilian one.
Key Point: the challenge is not just simply losing relationships, but losing an environment that embedded belonging into everyday life.

Identity and purpose

The military structure is not inherently need-thwarting or need-supportive, the psychological impact depends on how rules, expectations and authority are experienced and communicated.
Structure can provide clear expectations and guidance, whereas, controlling practices may pressure individuals to behave in certain ways which consequently may undermine their sense of autonomy.
Military service is an important source of status, identity, purpose and social connection, especially, when an individual's role is clearly defined.
Leaving the military may involve loss of more than just employment and may experience uncertainty about their identity when their previous role is no longer a part of their everyday life. Research has revealed that loss of military identity, status and purpose as recurring aspects and challenges during the transition.
Veterans can go through identity renegotiation as they determine what aspects of military identity are meaningful and whether they would be useful in civilian settings.
Therefore, this complexity is important when considering the transition that military personnel experience as they leave an environment that was simultaneously structured and psychologically supportive but also restrictive in other ways.
Key highlight is whether military structure supports internalisation and psychological need satisfaction or becomes experienced as need thwarting and controlling.

How can Self Determination Theory informed interventions support psychological need satisfaction and successful integration?

Understanding how psychological challenges of military-to-civilian transition provides a key basis for considering how transition support can promote rather than undermine psychological need satisfaction.
An SDT-informed approach reorients the focus from simply helping veterans cope with change to instead, creating social environments that support autonomy, competence and relatedness.
Therefore, existing transition support should be considered in terms of whether it provides opportunities for mastery, choice and meaningful social connection.

Creating supportive transition environments

Reintegration support should address psychological as well as practical aspects of transition
SDT has suggested that environments can support adjustment when they support autonomy, competence and relatedness.
Transition planning has been found to support autonomy through meaningful choice, veteran-led goals, and collaborative decision-making.
Support should provide structure and guidance without becoming unnecessarily controlling, however, it's important to note that providing choices does not automatically satisfy autonomy.

Supporting competence and connection

Vocational support can help veterans be able to translate military skills into civilian employment and also develop confidence in unfamiliar occupational environments and civilian environments.
Career counselling, feedback, recognition and retraining can strengthen perceived competence.
Services such as peer support, mentoring, family and community involvement can provide opportunities to develop and restore relatedness and belonging.
Effective support should enable veterans to develop new connections whilst allowing them to maintain meaningful military relationships, however, interventions should support multiple psychological needs simultaneously rather than separately.

Implications and limitations

SDT can provide a framework for evaluating whether reintegration services create conditions that support rather than frustrate needs.
Psychological need satisfaction cannot explain reintegration of broader factors such as housing, finances and access to services.
Therefore, a important research gap is still evidence testing SDT-informed veteran interventions. More longitudinal studies and Australian-specific research should be conducted to determine whether supporting autonomy, competence and relatedness produces a sustained improve in wellbeing and reintegration.


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Conclusion

Reiterate that military-to-civilian reintegration is a highly complex psychological adjustment that involves changes to identity, daily structure, competence, purpose, relationships and roles.
Emphasise that SDT provides a useful framework to understand how these changes influence autonomy, competence and relatedness, along with the impact upon different types of motivation (autonomous and controlled motivation).
Highlight the key/finding that military experiences are not necessarily need-supportive or need-thwarting. Instead, dependent on how leadership, structure, responsibilities and relationships are experienced and understood.
Briefly discuss that identity and purpose are interlinked with the three psychological needs (autonomy, competence and relatedness).
Conclude that SDT can inform practical interventions by creating transition environments that support identity, choice, competence, connection and meaningful goals.
Important take home message: success reintegration is not solely based on getting veterans into civilian life, instead, it should support veterans in developing self-directed, meaningful and socially connected lives beyond the military service.

Internal links

Social Connection (Book chapter, 2026))
Self determination theory (Wikipedia)

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References

Barnett, A., Savic, M., Lubman, D. (2021). Transitioning to civilian life: The importance of social group engagement and identity among Australian Defence Force veterans. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 56(8). https://doi.org/10.1177/00048674211046894

Becker, K., Bish, A., Abell, D., McCormack, M., Smidt, M. (2022). Supporting Australian veteran transition: career construction through a person-environment fit perspective. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 36(5), 799-823. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2022.2077127

Carra, K., Curtin, M., Fortune, T., Gordon, B. (2022). Service and demographic factors, health, trauma exposure, and participation are associated with adjustment for former Australian Defence Force members. Military Psychology, 35(5), 480-492. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2022.2120312

Flack, M., Kite, L. (2021). Transition from military service to civilian: identity, social connectedness, and veteran wellbeing. PLoS ONE, 16(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261634

Grimell, J. (2024). You can take a person out of the military, but you can't take the military out of the person: findings from a ten-year identity study on transition from military to civilian life. Frontiers in Sociology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2024.1406710

Kerr, N., Lane, S., Plotnikoff, R., Ashby, S. (2023). The "Transition" to civilian life from the perspective of former serving Australian Defence Force members. Journal of Veteran Studies, 9(1), 129-142. https://10.21061/jvs.v9i1.407

Knevelsrud, H.C., Sorlie, H., Valaker, S. (2023). Mission command: A self determination theory perspective. Military Psychology, 36(6), 672-688. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2023.2252718

Linden, A., Borjesson, M. (2026). Motivation in physically demanding military roles: a qualitative study using self-determination theory. Military Psychology, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2026.2671587

Loverre, M., Chirico, A., Cinque, L., Palombi, T., Alivernini, F., Lucidi, F., Alessandri, G., Livi, S. (2024). A systematic review of self-determination theory's application in military and police organisations. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 40(5), 685-707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-024-09718-2

Mobbs, M., Bonanno, G. (2018). Beyond war and PTSD: The crucial role of transition stress in the lives of military veterans. Clinical Psychology Review, 59, 137-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.11.007.

Olafsen, A., Halvari, H., Frolound, C. (2021). The basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration at work scale: A validation study. Organisational Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.697306

Romaniuk, M., Saunders-Dow, E., Brown, K., Batterham, P. (2024). Feasibility, acceptability, and initial outcomes of a psychological adjustment and reintegration program for transitioned military veterans. BMC Psychology, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-02097-7

Ryan, R., Deci, E. (2022). Self determination theory. Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_2630-2

Rybakovaite. J., Poskus, M., Blue, S. (2021). Forced or free choice: Hardiness, need satisfaction, and engagement among military conscripts. Current Psychology, 42(1), 7909-7919. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02123-6

Tillberg, L., Truusa, T.T, Tillberg, P. (2026). The skillful veteran: Transforming overseas experience into competence, from the military to civilian working life domain. Vocations and Learning, 19(5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-026-09385-w

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Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. Motivation Science, 4(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales. Harper & Row.

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Military-to-civilian Transition Final Report (Royal Commission)

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	When personnel understand and value their purpose.
	When all choices are removed.
	When personnel experience coercion and external pressure.
	When responsibilities are increased.

	Competence.
	Relatedness.
	Belonging.
	Autonomy.