Figure 1. Taylor feels frustrated after the submissions portal froze at a critical moment.
Scenario:
Taylor is trying to upload an assignment for his statistics class last minute but the submissions portal freezes exactly as he presses “submit”. He watches the cursor’s loading icon spin again and again, likely because the portal is overwhelmed by other last minute submissions.
Though Taylor still has 15 minutes before the deadline, he finds himself continuing to aggressively spam click the laptop trackpad and becoming consumed by a feeling of frustration. Taylor can feel his heart rate increase, jaw tighten and leg shake beneath the desk.
Then the trackpad becomes unresponsive. Taylor shoves his laptop aside and drops his head onto the table, angrily questioning why nothing ever seems to go his way (see Figure 1).
From moments of happiness and excitement to sadness or irritation, emotions are an integral aspect of being human, and it is expected that these emotions fluctuate as we navigate the complexity of our everyday lives. Emotions are neither ‘good’ nor ‘bad’, rather emotions have a specific evolutionary purpose that has helped us survive, adapt and interact with others (Šimić et al., 2021). Nonetheless, there are times in which strong and overwhelming emotions can impair our daily functioning. This is called emotion dysregulation.
Emotion dysregulation can be simply defined as the difficulty to cope with intense emotions, to the extent that an individual is unable to implement adaptive coping strategies (Gross & Thompson, 2007, as cited in Aslan et al., 2024). Consequently, individuals may struggle with abrupt changes in mood, impulsive behaviour and emotional responses out of proportion to the situation (reference). Research has indicated that frequent experiences of emotion dysregulation can negatively affect our well-being and may be a risk factor for the development and maintenance of mental health disorders (Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019; Aslan et al., 2024).
Taylor’s disproportionate anger response, in the scenario above, conveys a moment of emotion dysregulation. His escalating frustration led to impulsive actions that can be considered excessive relative to the situation.
This chapter will investigate how psychological science offers empirical frameworks to guide our understanding of emotion dysregulation, its consequences and strategies we can use to facilitate emotion regulation. Through understanding these concepts, we can be better prepared to identify and respond to emotion dysregulation in adaptive ways.
(Author note: will reword the last paragraph, and find missing reference in paragraph two).
Focus questions
1. How can emotion dysregulation be understood?
2. How can psychological models help explain experiences of emotion dysregulation?
3. How does emotion dysregulation impact daily functioning?
4. What is the association between emotion dysregulation and psychological disorders?
5. What approaches can help manage emotion dysregulation?
Emotions can be described as complex and dynamic psychological states that integrate subjective experiences, physiological responses and behavioural responses (Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2007 as cited in D’Agostino et al., 2017).
Emotion regulation is the ability to understand and cope with the onset, intensity and expression of these emotional states (Grecucci et al., 2020).
Aldao and colleagues (2010) conceptualised emotion regulation as the “processes through which individuals modulate their emotions consciously and subconsciously to respond to environmental demands”.
Individuals usually develop more effective emotion regulation strategies with age (Kaufman et al., 2026). Nonetheless, impairments in emotion regulation are observed at all stages of development (Kaufman et al., 2026).
So, what happens when we cannot regulate our emotions?
Despite the term being incorporated into vernacular, there is still much conceptual ambiguity surrounding the definition of emotion dysregulation due to its complexity. D’Agostino and colleagues (2017) identified five overlapping dimensions of emotion dysregulation that appear across research; reduced emotional awareness, decreased emotional reactivity, intense experiences and expression of emotion, emotional rigidity, and impaired cognitive reappraisals.
Comparatively, Beauchaine (2015, p.876) posits that emotion dysregulation constitutes “a pattern of emotional experience and/or expression that interferes with appropriate goal-directed behavior”.
These conceptualisations of emotion dysregulation emphasise deficits in emotion recognition, inability to inhibit impulsive emotional reactions, and the subsequent challenge to respond in ways that support goal attainment.
Alongside its impact on general well-being, pervasive emotion dysregulation is considered an important factor in the development and maintenance of psychological disorders (Yalvaç & Gaynor, 2021; Beauchaine & Dante Cicchetti, 2019).
(Author note: will include another section on outlining the core features/signs of emotion dysregulation. May delve into the different maladaptive strategies characteristic of emotion dysregulation. Then will include a sentence on using psychological frameworks to help our understanding.)
Gross's extended process model (EPM) of emotion regulation
Gross’s extended process model of emotion regulation is grounded in appraisal theory, positing that emotions emerge from the cognitive evaluations individuals make in response to events (Grecucci et al., 2020). This model emphasises a process-orientated framework for emotion [dys]regulation (Gross, 2015).
Gross (2015) defines emotion regulation as “a particular type of interaction between valuation systems”.
Gross (2015) proposes three distinct stages of emotion regulation; identification, selection and implementation. Emotion dysregulation may occur at any of these stages.
Sheppes et al. (2015):
Identification-stage failures: difficulty reading emotional cues, leading to challenges initiating emotion regulation strategies and/or overidentification of emotions.
Selection-stage failures: difficulties selecting an appropriate regulation strategy and/or a lack of access to adaptive strategies.
Implementation-stage failures: impaired ability to carry-out a selected regulation strategy.
Comment on the limitations of this model.
e.g., focus on emotion regulation rather than emotion dysregulation?
Linehan’s (1993) biosocial model proposes that emotion dysregulation constitutes the dynamic interactions between an individual’s biological emotional vulnerability and an invalidating environment during development. This model was initially developed within the context of Borderline Personality Disorder.Figure 2. Linehan's (1993) biosocial model of emotion dysregulation.
Emotional vulnerability refers to the genetic predisposition toward emotional hypersensitivity, hyperreactivity and long-lasting emotional reactions (Bemmouna & Weiner, 2023). The prefrontal cortex and amygdala are brain regions often implicated in the genetic disruption of emotional processing, contributing to increased emotional vulnerability (Bemmouna & Weiner, 2023).
Invalidating environments are characterised as insufficient environmental responses to a child’s emotional needs, thereby the child does not learn to understand, recognise or appropriately react to emotional responses (Cronwell et al., 2009).
Linehan (1993) argues that an individual is more likely to develop pervasive emotion dysregulation if they have an emotionally sensitive temperament and receive persistent invalidating responses. Individuals may feel compelled to escalate their emotional reactions to communicate their unmet needs (Linehan, 1993).
Linehan (1993) suggests that emotion dysregulation will lead to maladaptive response patterns when individuals are faced with challenging experiences.
Comment on the limitations of this model (e.g., developed based on BPD?)
Gratz and Roemer's multidimensional model of emotion regulation
Gratz and Roemer’s (2004) multidimensional model of emotion regulation aimed to provide a comprehensive and integrative approach to the conceptualisation and measurement of emotion regulation.
Using on this model, Gratz and Roemer (2004) developed the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) to assess emotion dysregulation. Based on the results, Gratz and Roemer (2004) conceptualised six core dimensions that characterise emotion dysregulation;
lack of awareness of emotions
lack of clarity of emotions
nonacceptance of emotional responses
inability to access regulation strategies
difficulties controlling impulsive behaviour when experiencing negative emotions
inability to engage in goal directed behaviour when experiencing negative emotions
DERS is an empirically validated psychological assessment tool used to assess emotion dysregulation among adolescents and adults (Kaufman et al., 2026). In 2026, Kaufman and colleagues developed a short form version called DERS-SF.
Let's do a quick knowledge check!
Impact of emotion dysregulation on daily functioning
Describe/argue how emotion dysregulation impacts individuals daily functioning – making sure to define daily functioning and why this could be problematic to overall well-being.
Tani and colleagues (2015) identified that increased levels of emotion dysregulation were associated with lower satisfaction in couples’ relationship quality.
Those that struggle to modulate their emotional responses often experience prolonged and more severe periods of distress (Boemo et al., 2022).
Samea and colleagues (2025) performed a meta-analysis on the relationship between emotion dysregulation and sleep deprivation.
Emphasise that emotion dysregulation negatively impacts multiple domains of daily functioning (decision-making, stress-responses, quality of life, etc.) – therefore addressing the importance of addressing emotion dysregulation.
(Author note: should this section be expanded using subheadings? For example, interpersonal conflict, impaired academic/occupational performance, and impact on general health/well-being. Need to make sure enough literature is available with non-clinical populations - or maybe I can include research from clinical populations?)
Association between psychological disorders and emotion dysregulation
Alongside its impact on everyday functioning, emotion dysregulation is increasingly recognised as a transdiagnostic factor in the development and maintenance of psychological disorders (Yalvaç & Gaynor, 2021; Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019).
Transdiagnostic factors refer to underlying risk, maintenance or protective factors that are implicated across a diverse range psychological disorders, transcending diagnostic categories (Dalgeish et al., 2020).
Emotion dysregulation in children and adolescents may be a predisposing factor to the emergence of psychological disorders in adulthood (Cole et al. 2017).
Emotion dysregulation in borderline personality disorder (BPD)
Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a psychological disorder defined by an enduring pattern of emotion dysregulation, impaired interpersonal functioning and an unstable sense of self (Bohus et al., 2021).
Refer back to Linehan’s (1993) biosocial model ---> developed for BPD.
According to Linehan (1933), emotion dysregulation is a core feature of borderline personality disorder, accounting for most of its symptomology.
Borderline personality disorder is associated with low emotional awareness, persistent negative affect and the use of ineffective strategies to regulate emotions (Fitzpatrick et al., 2023).
Among those with borderline personality disorder, impulsivity and dysfunctional behaviour is associated with experiences of increased emotional distress (Bohus et al., 2021).
(Author note: will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation as the driving factor of BPD symptomology (e.g., risk or maintaining factor) and touch on how individuals with BPD use strategies that elicit short-term relief but perpetuate difficulties over time.)
Bipolar disorder is a psychological disorder associated with extreme changes in mood, energy and activity levels (Singh et al., 2025). Bipolar disorder is defined by recurrent episodes of mania or hypomania and depression (Singh et al., 2025).
Difficulties in emotion regulation are correlated with depressive and (hypo)manic episodes (Oliva et al., 2023).
Those with bipolar disorder exhibit a reduced capacity to recognise and accept their emotions during both acute (hypo)manic and depressive episodes (Oliva et al., 2023).
M’Bailara and colleagues (2009) found that even during euthymia, participants with bipolar disorder experienced greater emotional reactivity and emotional intensity than control participants. This suggests that emotion dysregulation persists beyond acute symptoms and may account for the increased vulnerability to minor stressful events observed among those with bipolar (M’Bailara et al., 2009).
(Author note: will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation in BD symptomology (e.g., risk or maintaining factor) and touch on how individuals with BD use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Additionally, will look for a more recent study on euthymia and emotion dysregulation).
Emotion dysregulation in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Emerging research has indicated that emotion regulation difficulties in ADHD cannot be explained fully by the presence of comorbid disorders, rather emotion dysregulation itself may be a distinct feature of ADHD (Bodalski et al., 2019).
In 2014, Bunford and colleagues found that emotion dysregulation predicted social impairments among adolescents with ADHD, particularly emotional excitability, impulsivity and prolonged emotional responses.
Barkley (1997) proposed the executive functioning theory of ADHD, arguing that ADHD can be attributed to impairments in the behavioural inhibition processes that govern self-regulation and goal-directed behaviour.
Disruptions in emotional inhibition processes are among the executive functions implicated in ADHD, contributing to emotion dysregulation (Mitchell et al., 2012).
(Author note: will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation in ADHD and touch on how individuals with ADHD use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Additionally, will give examples on how emotion dysregulation presents in ADHD).
Scenario: Emotional dysregulation in ADHD
(Author note: will incorporate a scenario (and figure) to explain the role of emotion dysregulation in ADHD.)
Research indicates that emotion regulation is a learned skill that develops with practice over the lifespan (Wright et al., 2025).
Figure 3. Emotion regulation skills promote general well-being. Individuals emotion regulation capabilities are shaped through learning processes, including parental modelling and co-regulation during childhood (Wright et al., 2025)
Psychotherapy interventions or management strategies that build emotion regulation skills are integral to reducing emotion dysregulation and maladaptive strategies among those with psychological disorders.
Outside of professional support, there are a range of practical everyday strategies that can assist in reducing emotion dysregulation and promoting general well-being (see Figure 3).
Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT) approaches to emotion dysregulation
Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT) emerged as a psychological treatment approach rooted in behaviourism to address self-harm behaviours in borderline personality disorder (Linehan & Wilks, 2015).
DBT focuses on developing practical skills across the four modules of mindfulness, interpersonal effectiveness, emotional regulation and distress tolerance (Linehan & Wilks, 2015).
Abundant empirical research found that DBT was clinically relevant in reducing emotion dysregulation and maladaptive coping strategies among those with borderline personality disorder (Lenz et al., 2016).
Emotional regulation is considered a key mechanism of change in DBT outcomes (Lenz et al., 2016).
DBT has broader clinical applications – will incorporate research on DBT’s effectiveness across other psychological disorders in which emotion dysregulation is a key component.
Comment on how DBT relates to/addresses to both Linehan’s biosocial model and Gross’s extended process model.
(Author note: will further expand upon the emotion dysregulation skills-training involved in DBT and further emphasis will be placed on evidence from literature.)
Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) approaches to emotion dysregulation
Figure 4. Representation of Beck's (1976) cognitive triad. Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is grounded on the premise that thoughts, behaviours and emotions are intrinsically intertwined (Preece & Gross, 2026).
Cognitive reappraisal is an important technique used in CBT to regulate emotions (Wang & Yin, 2023).
Preece and Gross (2026) posit that CBT should be understood through the lens of emotion regulation.
Compare/link back to Gross's (2015) extended process model of emotion regulation and reference Beck’s (1976) cognitive triad (see Figure 4).
(Author note: the cognitive triangle might be more relevant than the cognitive triad here).
Physiological approaches to managing emotion dysregulation
Briefly cover emotion regulation through exercise – include research on how exercise can reduce emotion dysregulation through physiological mechanisms.
Thayer and Lane (2000) posited the neurovisceral integration model to account for the observed relationship between physiological feedback circuits and affective systems.
Briefly cover emotion regulation through meditation/mindfulness - technique used to elicit the relaxation response which facilitates emotion regulation through physiological mechanisms.
Benson and colleagues (1974) relaxation response theory.
Emphasise the accessibility of meditation/mindfulness.
Summarise emotion dysregulation, including its core features, conceptualisation as multidimensional construct and how psychological models can guide our understanding (despite diverse approaches/definitions).
Emphasise the influence and impact of emotion dysregulation on our day-to-day lives. Comment on the effect of emotion dysregulation on our well-being.
Restate how increasing evidence highlights emotion dysregulation as a transdiagnostic factor across many psychological disorders, thereby emotion dysregulation has important clinical applications in the treatment of these disorders.
Provide a practical summary of the strategies that can reduce dysregulation. Aim to encourage the reader to try implement these strategies themselves to improve emotion self-regulation skills.
Comment again on the importance of emotion regulation skills, particularly when confronted with challenging or distressing situations (leads to overall healthier behaviours and well-being).
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