Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Stress and psychological well-being

Stress and psychological wellbeing:
How does stress influence psychological wellbeing?

Overview

Figure 1. Feeling stressed in the workplace Scenario Mia worked in a fast-paced environment with a boss who worked long days and expected the same of his staff. Mia found herself working 12-hour days, working over the weekend and was still struggling to stay on top of her growing to-do list (see Figure 1). Mia started to become irritable at work and home, becoming frustrated at small inconveniences and found herself arguing a lot more with her partner. Mia no longer found time for the gym or her hobbies, and although she felt exhausted, had trouble sleeping through the night. The constant and prolonged stress Mia was under at work was negatively influencing her psychological wellbeing, relationships, productivity and cognitive and social functioning.

Stress is a normal and healthy body response which is experienced globally by people in their daily lives. Healthy amounts of stress can motivate people to achieve their goals, but prolonged stress can have negative consequences. Stressful life events can disrupt or change our psychological functioning which can impact our relationships, friendships, work, and cognitive and social functioning.

This chapter explores how stress influences psychological wellbeing by first defining what stress is and the psychological theories that underpin it. Psychological wellbeing is then explained before the influence of stress on psychological wellbeing is explored with a focus on the unique impacts of stress on elite athletes and university students. This chapter provides an understanding of the influence of stress on psychological wellbeing and strategies that can be used to reduce these impacts.

Focus questions What is stress? What is psychological wellbeing? How does stress influence psychological wellbeing? How can the negative impacts of stress on psychological wellbeing be reduced?

Understanding stress

Stress is a normal, healthy bodily response involving the release of hormones, namely adrenaline and cortisol, that result in physical and psychological reactions (Ovsiannikova et al., 2024). It is the body’s way of responding to a perceived threat or challenge and is considered fundamental to humans’ natural survival instincts (American Psychological Association, 2024). This automatic response can motivate us to achieve their goals, or enhance our body’s immune response, however in the long-term chronic stress can have significant physiological and psychological consequences (Ovsiannikova et al., 2024).

Types of stress

There are two types of stress, known as eustress and distress.

Eustress is a healthy, moderate amount of stress which enables functioning and can motivate people to achieve their goals (Ovsiannikova et al., 2024). Eustress is considered a positive response to stress which can result in favourable outcomes to situations including increased self-confidence, responsiveness and positive mindsets (Ovsiannikova et al., 2024). On the contrary, distress is a negative or harmful response to stress and can inhibit people from achieving their goals (Ovsiannikova et al., 2024). Severe or long-term distress can have negative implications impacting physiological and psychological functioning, including reduced cognitive ability (Ovsiannikova et al., 2024).

There are different categories of stress based on length of duration, the body’s response and the source of the stress (typically called stressors), including:

• Acute stress which is often in response to immediate or unexpected challenges and is short-term in nature
• Chronic stress is prolonged and can lead to ongoing physiological and psychological effects
• Physiological stress is the body’s response to factors that disrupt the body's stable internal state
• Psychological stress relates to significant emotional experiences which can impair cognitive functioning and stability
• Stressors such as occupational or financial stress

(Chu et al., 2024; Ovsiannikova et al., 2024).

Psychological theories of stress

Developments in stress research date back to the late 19^th century and were predominately focused on physiological responses until psychological factors were identified as having an important influence post the world wars (Robinson, 2018). The earliest developments in stress research date back to Claude Bernard who suggested the physiological need for a stable or regulated internal state (Robinson, 2018). This theory laid the foundation for Walter Cannon’s later work in describing homeostasis, the body’s stable internal environment, and the “fight or flight” response (Bliese et al., 2017; Robinson, 2018). Cannon proposed that the “fight or flight” response is caused by the release of adrenaline which prepares the body to respond to a threat before returning to a stable, homeostatic, environment (Robinson, 2018).

Cannon-Bard theory of emotions

Following Cannon’s research on homeostasis and the body’s physiological need for a stable internal environment, Cannon and Philip Bard proposed the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion which incorporated emotional and physiological responses to stress (Robinson, 2018). The theory proposed that physiological changes occurred during stressful events, suggesting emotions are controlled by the thalamic areas of the brain (Robinson, 2018). The theory was the first to suggest that both physiological and emotional responses occur at the same time during a stressful event (Kankam, 2025). The theory argues this is the reason why some physical responses are the same for different emotional states, for example a racing heart can occur during fearful experiences such as being chased by a predator, or during anxious experiences such as before public speaking (Kankam, 2025).

The general adaption syndrome

Building on from Cannon’s earlier work, Hans Selye proposed a three-stage physiological response to stress that included alarm, resistance and exhaustion, called the general adaption syndrome (GAS) (Bliese et al., 2017; Robinson, 2018). The theory proposes alarm is the body’s “fight or flight” response, resistance relates to the body adapting to withstand the stressful event, and exhaustion is the final stage where the body is unable to sustain the response (Robinson, 2018). Selye’s research highlighted the negative effect of prolonged stress (or distress) on the body and proposed this physiological response occurred regardless of the type of stress experienced (Robinson, 2018).

Transactional theory

Figure 2. Lazarus' transactional model of stress

A prominent theory of psychological stress is the transactional theory developed by Richard Lazarus, who was fundamental in advancing stress research (Bliese et al., 2017; Robinson, 2018). Lazarus challenged Selye’s GAS theory proposing there are various factors in a stress response, including individual differences (Robinson, 2018). The theory proposes psychological stress is unique and depends on a person’s cognitive appraisal, or interpretation, of the stressful event which explains why people can respond differently to the same situation (Robinson, 2018). To understand the various factors that can impact a person’s response to a situation, Lazarus developed the transactional model of stress (see Figure 2) (Robinson, 2018). The model identifies cognitive appraisal as the determinant for the response and suggests there is primary appraisal to assess the potential harm of the threat, and secondary appraisal to assess ways of managing the situation (Bliese et al., 2017). Lazarus further contributed to the research of psychological stress by suggesting coping strategies as a mediator to stress, reiterating the importance of individual differences as a key factor in stress responses (Bliese et al., 2017; Robinson, 2018).

Check your understanding 1 Stress is a normal body response that can motivate us to achieve our goals True False 2 The following theory proposed psychological stress is impacted by individual differences and cognitive appraisal Cannon-Bard theory of emotions The general adaption syndrome Transactional theory

Understanding psychological wellbeing

Figure 3. A healthy mental and emotional state

At its simplest, psychological wellbeing can be described as a healthy mental and emotional state (see Figure 3) (Dhanabhakyam & Sarath, 2023). It includes a person’s ability to function effectively, manage emotions, have purpose and goals, be productive, have meaning in their life and experience healthy relationships (Dhanabhakyam & Sarath, 2023; Huppert, 2009). Maintaining psychological wellbeing also includes experiencing the positive and negative emotions of life, such as sadness or disappointment, and managing these emotions as part of everyday life (Adler et al., 2017; Huppert, 2009). Psychological wellbeing starts to be impacted when negative emotions are prolonged or are no longer replaced by affirmative or positive emotions, such as joy, happiness and excitement (Dhanabhakyam & Sarath, 2023).

Whilst this is a simple explanation of psychological wellbeing, it is a complex, multifaceted concept and the definition is still debated despite extensive and ongoing research on the topic (Dhanabhakyam & Sarath, 2023). This may be due to the various aspects of mental and emotional health and wellbeing, the factors that can impact them, and the interdependencies between them, that contribute towards psychological wellbeing (Dhanabhakyam & Sarath, 2023).

Psychological wellbeing can be impacted by a range of biological, social, individual and environmental factors. Examples of some factors are outlined in Table 1.

Table 1.

Examples of the biological, social, individual and environmental factors that can impact psychological wellbeing.

Biological factors	Social factors	Individual factors	Environmental factors
Genetics	Family/social support	Mental health history	Life events or experiences
Brain chemistry/hormones	Socioeconomic status	Personality traits	Access to basic needs
Family history of mental health issues	Economic stability	Emotional stress	Stressors (including occupational, financial, academic etc.)
Physical health	Access to education and healthcare	Self-efficacy and resilience	Access to the outdoors/green spaces
	Relationships	Intrinsic/extrinsic motivation	Access to drugs/alcohol

(Department of Health, Disability and Ageing, 2024; Dhanabhakyam & Sarath, 2023; He et al., 2018; Rieck & Lundin, 2024).

How stress influences psychological wellbeing

To understand how stress influences psychological wellbeing it’s important to understand the different terms that are used in describing stress, including stressors and the stress response. Stressors are events that have the potential to impact the body’s normal physiological (homeostatic state) and psychological functioning, while stress responses are the way the body reacts to the stressful event (for example, the “fight or flight” response) (Crosswell & Lockwood, 2020; LeWine, 2024). Stress responses can include a range of physiological, psychological, behavioural, emotional and cognitive reactions (outlined in Table 2) that can be triggered by a vast number of stressors, including:

• Financial stress such as financial hardship
• Occupational stress such as work demands and pressure
• Academic stress such as high study loads and assessment or exam periods
• Relationship stress such as separation/divorce or changes of circumstances (e.g. becoming a parent)
• Major life changes such as health concerns or illnesses
• Daily life stress such as balancing responsibilities (e.g. school, work, children, relationships etc.)

(Crosswell & Lockwood, 2020; Health Direct, 2025).

Table 2.

Examples of physiological, psychological, behavioural and emotional stress responses.

Physiological	Psychological	Behavioural	Emotional
Headaches	Difficulty concentrating	Change in appetite	Feeling overwhelmed
Stomach pain/nausea	Negative thoughts about self	Disrupted sleep	Feeling anxious or worried
Sweating	Memory impairment	Withdrawal from friends	Changes in mood
Muscle tension			Feeling fatigued

(American Psychological Association, 2024; Health Direct, 2025).

The effect of stress has been widely studied, and empirical research suggests stress, especially distress, negatively affects physiological and psychological wellbeing (Barry et al., 2020; Crosswell & Lockwood, 2020). Studies suggest distress directly impacts physiological, cognitive and emotional responses based on an individual’s cognitive appraisal of the situation, and it indirectly impacts psychological wellbeing through stress-induced health-behaviours (Barry et al., 2020). An example of stress-induced health behaviours may include smoking, drinking alcohol, unhealthy eating habits and poor sleep (Candeias et al., 2024). Research has found distress had a significant negative impact on psychological wellbeing across populations, suggesting there is consistency and replicability of the influence of stress on psychological wellbeing (Barry et al., 2020).

How stress influences elite athletes' psychological wellbeing

Figure 4. Elite athletes competing in the 2024 UCI Road World Championships

Elite athletes have significant physical and mental demands placed on them to perform at their best during their sporting career. The physical demands can include consistent high-intensity training regimes, tactical decision-making and cooperating with teammates in team sports (Joseph et al., 2025). In addition to the physical demands, elite athletes manage unique stressors such as competition stress (see Figure 4), intense media scrutiny, constant pressure and expectations to perform, travel or relocation requirements, potential burnout, and the constant fear of injury (Rice et al., 2016). Research suggests these stressors coupled with ongoing intense physical activities can negatively impact elite athletes’ psychological wellbeing, increasing symptoms of anxiety and depression (Rice et al., 2016).

These stressors can influence elite athletes’ psychological wellbeing which can in turn impact their performance. However, despite these implications, studies suggest elite athletes rarely seek support to manage their mental health due to stigma and the perception of appearing weak (Rice et al., 2016). These findings suggest stress both directly and indirectly influences elite athletes’ psychological wellbeing and further research regarding intervention strategies is required to understand how this cohort can be better supported in managing the demands of their profession (Rice et al., 2016).

How stress influences students’ psychological wellbeing

Studies suggest students are a high-risk population for poor psychological wellbeing due largely to the direct and in-direct influence of stress (Li & Hasson, 2020; Slimmen et al., 2022). Like elite athletes’, students have unique stressors such as academic pressures to perform well, financial pressure, loneliness, limited family/social support structures, and reduced leisure or social activities (Slimmen et al., 2022). Research suggests these stressors, coupled with perceived stress (the extent to which a situation is considered stressful), result in decreased psychological wellbeing that can lead to burnout and exhaustion in students (Slimmen et al., 2022). For example, in the Netherlands studies claimed over 60% of university students reported excessive stress levels with over half reporting burnout symptoms (Slimmen et al., 2022).

Figure 5. Student struggling with university workload

The influence of stress on psychological wellbeing is vast, and can result in impacted sleep patterns, changes to appetite and reduced memory and attention (Li & Hasson, 2020). This can impact negatively on students’ ability to learn and retain information, which ultimately reduces their academic performance (Li & Hasson, 2020). Consequently, distress can result in decreased affective emotions, quality of life and academic success resulting in and contributing to poor psychological wellbeing (see Figure 5) (Slimmen et al., 2022).

Check your understanding 1 Stressors can include Life events Family/home factors Workplace factors Financial factors All the above 2 Research suggests elite athletes and university students have unique stressors which can negatively impact their psychological wellbeing True False

Reducing the impacts of stress on psychological wellbeing

There are a range of coping or intervention strategies that can be used to reduce the influence of stress on psychological wellbeing. These strategies can include improving positive affect by prioritising enjoyable activities, regular physical exercise, building psychological resilience, participating in mindfulness-based interventions or cognitive behaviour therapy interventions (American Psychological Association, 2024; Dhanabhakyam & Sarath, 2023).

Psychological resilience

Psychological resilience refers to an individuals’ ability to respond or adapt to adverse outcomes or situations, and it is considered a protective factor against the negative impacts of stress (Candeias et al., 2024). Research suggests psychological resilience positively correlates to psychological wellbeing as it counteracts the negative effects of stress (Li & Hasson, 2020). Building psychological resilience takes time and focus, and incorporates difficult life experiences (He et al., 2018). It also requires people to prioritise their wellbeing which may also include seeking professional help (American Psychological Association, 2020). Professional help may include mindfulness-based interventions which studies suggest help to build psychological resilience (Candeias et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2021).

Mindfulness-based interventions

Figure 6. Woman practising mindfulness by meditating

Mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) focus on meditation and mindfulness by being in the moment and being aware of one’s feelings and surroundings (see Figure 6) (van Agteren et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2021). Research suggests that MBIs develop skills to disrupt negative thoughts and emotions which provide more cognitive capacity for resolving challenges (Sanilevici et al., 2021).

Empirical research suggests MBIs improve positive affect and overall psychological wellbeing by reducing stress levels and the impacts of distress (Dhanabhakyam & Sarath, 2023; Sanilevici et al., 2021). These findings are supported by van Agteren et al. (2021) recent systematic review which reported MBIs were consistently reported as positively impacting psychological wellbeing in clinical and non-clinical settings .

Cognitive behaviour therapy

Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) is a psychological intervention strategy that targets maladaptive thinking and behaviours, and focuses on modifying these negative thoughts and behaviours (Craske, 2017). CBT focuses on supporting the development of goals through positive affect, coping skills and emotional regulation (Ojala et al., 2019; van Agteren et al., 2021). Empirical research suggests CBT effectively reduces the impact of stress and improves psychological wellbeing (Dhanabhakyam & Sarath, 2023; Ojala et al., 2019; Ovsiannikova et al., 2024) . These findings are supported by van Agteren et al. (2021) systematic review which suggests “CBT is currently the most empirically supported and practised therapeutic approach” (p. 639) .

Conclusion

Stress is a normal, healthy bodily response that can have positive impacts. However, prolonged or chronic stress can have negative physiological and psychological consequences. Whilst early research suggested the effects of stress were purely physiological, later developments acknowledge the impact on psychological wellbeing and the importance of individual differences in stress responses. Individual differences, initially proposed in the transtheoretical theory, can explain why people have different physiological and psychological responses to the same stressful situation or circumstance.

The term stress incorporates different categories or meanings of the word, including stressors, stress responses and different types of stress such as acute (eustress) and chronic (distress) stress. Empirical research suggests stress can directly and indirectly impact physiological and psychological wellbeing (Barry et al., 2020; Crosswell & Lockwood, 2020). Elite athletes and university students have unique stressors which, coupled with direct and indirect stress responses, negatively influence their psychological wellbeing. Interventions such as prioritising enjoyable activities to improve positive affect, regular physical exercise building psychological resilience, participating in mindfulness-based interventions or cognitive behaviour therapy interventions can reduce the negative impacts of stress on psychological wellbeing (American Psychological Association, 2024; Dhanabhakyam & Sarath, 2023).

See also

• Stress mindset (Book chapter, 2024)
• Stress (psychological) (Wikiversity)
• Well-being (Wikipedia)

References

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Rice, S. M., Purcell, R., De Silva, S., Mawren, D., McGorry, P. D., & Parker, A. G. (2016). The Mental Health of Elite Athletes: A Narrative Systematic Review. Sports Medicine, 46(9), 1333-1353. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-016-0492-2

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Sanilevici, M., Reuveni, O., Lev-Ari, S., Golland, Y., & Levit-Binnun, N. (2021). Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Increases Mental Wellbeing and Emotion Regulation During the First Wave of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Synchronous Online Intervention Study. Front Psychol, 12, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.720965

Slimmen, S., Timmermans, O., Mikolajczak-Degrauwe, K., & Oenema, A. (2022). How stress-related factors affect mental wellbeing of university students A cross-sectional study to explore the associations between stressors, perceived stress, and mental wellbeing. PLoS ONE, 17(11), e0275925. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275925

van Agteren, J., Iasiello, M., Lo, L., Bartholomaeus, J., Kopsaftis, Z., Carey, M., & Kyrios, M. (2021). A systematic review and meta-analysis of psychological interventions to improve mental wellbeing. Nature Human Behaviour, 5(5), 631-652. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01093-w

Zhang, D., Lee, E. K. P., Mak, E. C. W., Ho, C. Y., & Wong, S. Y. S. (2021). Mindfulness-based interventions: an overall review. British Medical Bulletin, 138(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1093/bmb/ldab005

External links

• How stress affects your health (American Psychological Association)
• Stress (World Health Organization)
• Stress and it's impact on you (Black Dog Institute)
• Understanding the stress response (Harvard Health Publishing)
• Stress (HealthDirect)