Social media and emotional dysregulation:
How does social media use contribute to emotional dysregulation?

Overview

[Provide a more practical, real-life scenario to illustrate the topic. Move review of research into a subsequent section.]

Case study

A study of Italian young adults by Quaglieri et al. (2021) compared the role of emotional dysregulation in problematic use of social media and the internet. The case scenario describes that the challenges in emotional regulation were the direct predictors of increased levels of internet addiction, as well as the indirect determinants of fear of missing out (FoMO) and overuse of social media (Quaglieri et al., 2021). The factor of personality traits, including neuroticism, was vulnerable, but conscientiousness was a protective factor.

Figure 1 shows how challenges in emotion regulation (X) may result in internet addiction (Y). This is not a direct relationship, but is described by the presence of two mediating variables: social media addiction (M1) and fear of missing out (M2). The figure also demonstrates that neuroticism (C1) and conscientiousness (C2) are the two personality traits that have effects on internet addiction, and these are control variables in the model. The case underscores how emotional processes, personality, and social media behaviors are intertwined to lead to digital dependence among young people (Quaglieri et al., 2021).

Andangsari et al. (2024) found that emotional reactivity and dysregulation make problematic internet use more severe in Asian settings. Tokunaga (2017) also indicates that emotional regulation challenges are homogeneous predictors of digital overuse, regardless of the platform and cultural background. The evidence highlights the generality of the process of emotional mechanisms in influencing problematic online behaviour.

Psychological science can be used to explain why emotional dysregulation stimulates problematic use of social media. The TOTE [explain abbreviations] model demonstrates the endless nature of the interactions between users and platforms as users continuously test and re-engage with platforms in an endless loop of emotional regulation efforts. The interaction of explicit and implicit motives brings out conscious motivation of connection compared to unconscious motivation of approval. Dual-process models reflect the conflict between impulsive desires for immediate gratification and reflective self-control, which is usually skewed by stress or vulnerability. These processes are interconnected through the cognitive behavioral model of pathological internet use, which demonstrates that maladaptive thoughts and inadequate regulation skills sustain compulsive online behaviors[use Australian spelling].

Focus questions

How does emotional dysregulation interact with personality traits, increasing vulnerability to digital dependence?
What psychological theories best explain why online engagement can spiral out of control?
How can improving emotional regulation skills help people achieve healthier digital habits?

Psychological Theories

The understanding of how the access and use of social media contribute to emotional dysregulation requires background knowledge of psychological theories. The theories are listed, providing an in-depth conceptual framework for the problem discussed.

TOTE Model

The TOTE model suggests that to regulate behavior, people compare their present situation to a goal, work to eliminate differences, and leave when they achieve the goal (Holton et al., 2024). The application of the Cybernetic Model of Self-Regulation indicates that emotional signals are key feedback mechanisms in instances of goal achievement failure, explaining why frustration or anxiety increases the loop (Wells, 2019). Similarly, the research by Snodgrass et al. (2018) analyses that the compensatory internet use model emphasizes how people shift to online resources to control negative feelings. Therefore, making the affective needs the centre of attention as compared to the cognitive routines. When applied to social media, it is the reason why people constantly check their notifications or scroll feeds; it is a way to prove to themselves that they feel connected or safe. TOTE is useful compared to these options to demonstrate the persistence of loops.

Case study

Rixen et al. (2023) explored the causes behind users being caught in the loop and their breakers. The results indicate that users feel stuck in two connected cycles, including an inner cycle of lengthy and regrettable scrolling within one session and an outer cycle of a habitual opening of the social media application. The study discovered that most causes of breaking the loop are extrinsic to the application, including real-life commitments or battery life of the device, and not in the app itself. The authors also conclude that screen time reduction interventions need to be concentrated on the wider context of the user and not only on in-app design.

Explicit vs. Implicit Models

Tensions between conative and subconscious motives can be used to describe the cognitive conflict experienced by users online. Where explicit motives are conscious, like the desire to be kept informed, implicit motives are unconscious, which can be a desire to be liked or accepted (Poeller et al., 2021). The Social Comparison Theory [Use APA style for capitalisation of theories (lower case)] developed by Festinger reveals that upward comparison may increase dissatisfaction and disrupt regulation attempts (Sung, Li, and Choi, 2024)[Use APA style for citations]. On social media, the discrepancy between what the users believe they are pursuing and the underlying intentions behind the behaviour may cause frustration and emotional imbalance. However, Gratifications Theory determines that users are rational and active users of media who are eager to satisfy conscious goals with little influence of unconscious motives (Joo & Yang, 2023). Although both perspectives have some basis, explicit-implicit conflict is a more convincing explanation of emotional dysregulation due to unresolved needs concealed, which is more consistent with compulsive digital use patterns.

Case study

Jabagi et al. (2025) imply that addiction is not simply about the excessive use of a platform, but about the compatibility of the functionality of the platform and the inner drive of an individual. The authors claim that human beings are motivated by three key desires: the desire to belong to others, the desire to feel powerful or influential, and the desire to perform. A social media application like LinkedIn is made to meet one of these fundamental wants in a perfect way, which can form an overwhelmingly strong and addictive loop.

Dual-process models: Impulsive vs. reflective systems

Dual-processed models of behavior also give more reasons why regulation cannot be effective (Cecchini, 2021). The stated model focuses on two systems, one being the impulsive system, which is fast, automatic, and reward-oriented, and the other is the reflective system, which is slower, effortful, and self-controlled. Social media is programmed to capitalize on impulsive mechanisms, provide immediate satisfaction in the form of notifications and random rewards (Mujica et al., 2022). The reflective system becomes weak when people are stressed, tired, or emotionally vulnerable, and they will tend to act impulsively (Cecchini, 2021). Therefore, the present disequilibrium spawns periodic excess and imbalance.

Case study

The case presented by Danso and Awudi (2022) outlines the causes of internet addiction among undergraduate students of the University of Education, Winneba, which were anxiety, depression, curiosity, boredom, and loneliness. The research revealed that students use the internet to carry out academic research as well as for entertainment, which may end up being addiction triggers. Finally, to manage such addiction, students employ strategies such as self-restraint, raising awareness, being goal-oriented when online, and using administrative limitations as a tool.

Cognitive Behavioral Model

The cognitive behavioral model conceptualizes problematic internet use concerning maladaptive cognition and poor skills of emotional regulation (Tunney and Rooney, 2023). On the other hand, the Social Cognitive Theory elaborated by Bandura considers the environmental reinforcements and modelling in which the normalization of maladaptive behaviors by observing excessive behavior among peers is achieved (Bhati & Sethy, 2022). The findings of the mentioned study highlight that problematic internet use occurs when maladaptive cognitions are combined with low emotional regulation abilities.

Case Study

The study by Davis et al. (2025) analysed that there are two primary categories of behaviours exhibited by teens on Instagram to manage their emotions: mindless diversion and intentional behaviour. The reason that motivates teens is the urge to either get away from negative things, such as boredom and stress, or they do it to interact with friends and interests. The authors concluded that despite the positive emotional reactions mentioned by teens, the unpredictable and habitual use of the platform makes it an unsound method of permanently regulating emotions (Davis et al., 2025).

Test yourself! 1. Under the TOTE model, what makes users engage in endless scrolling of social media? a) As social media offers cognitive stimulation, which fulfills long-term desires b) Because emotional signals like frustration keep reactivating the cycle when goals are unmet c) Since social media sites remove all the disparities between the ambitions and results instantly d) The real-life obligations do not allow the users to interrupt online cycles 2. Which do best explain the implicit motivations behind excessive use of social media? a) An individual checking news to update themselves with what is going on b) An online researcher is a student doing an academic study c) A teenager repeatedly posting selfies to feel liked and accepted by peers d) An employer on LinkedIn helping to find a new job 3. Dual-process models explain why social media can be addictive because: a) They involve rational and conscious motives of digital engagement only b) They suggest that impulsive, reward-oriented systems often overpower reflective self-control under stress c) They presume that maladaptive cognitions are the only motivators of problematical internet use d) They claim that no unconscious mechanisms affect the internet behaviour 4. Within the context of the cognitive behavioural model, what perpetuates problematic social media use? a) The normalization of excessive use by observing peers b) Randomized rewards such as platform notifications c) Maladaptive cognitions combined with poor emotional regulation skills d) Correspondence between platform design and inner human drive

Based on these results, it is evident that emotional dysregulation is not only a predictor of problematic social media use but it also interplays with personality and cognitive processes in the vulnerability of influencing factors. Although the above discussion has revealed ways of association and mechanisms with which social media can be connected to undesirable emotional outcomes, it is also worthwhile to consider how they can be reduced. The next section will thus consider the importance of the emotional regulation strategies, and how increasing the cognitive, affective, and behavioral skills can decrease the dependence and lead to a healthier digital behavior. This development will make sure that the study does not merely define the issue but also demonstrates evidence-based interventions.

Emotional Dysregulation Interaction with Personality Traits

The connection between social media and its effects on emotions is a controversial topic, and studies have shown both negative and positive effects to be maladaptive and adaptive. Although it has been linked to anxiety, depression, and poor emotional regulation, research also points to the online communication being beneficial and supportive under specific conditions.

Table 1.

Key Factors Linking Social Media Use and Emotional Outcomes

Factor	Evidence & Insights
Anxiety and depression risk	Excessive social media use is strongly associated with symptoms of anxiety and depression (Ivie et al., 2020).
Maladaptive emotion regulation	Difficulty regulating emotions leads individuals to rely on platforms for mood adjustment, which worsens long-term distress (Wadley et al., 2020).
Negative social comparison	Instagram and TikTok reinforce feelings of inadequacy, contributing to cycles of negative affect (Davis et al., 2025).
Perceived social support	In certain contexts, online interactions enhance well-being through improved social connectedness (Yue, Zhang & Xiao, 2024).
Intermittent reinforcement	Likes and notifications act as unpredictable rewards, triggering compulsive use through impulsive neural mechanisms (Wang & Wang, 2025).
Fear of Missing Out (FoMO)	Persistent concern about exclusion drives compulsive checking behaviours and maintains anxiety (Gioia et al., 2021).
Cognitive appraisals	Users prone to dysregulation often misinterpret ambiguous online responses as rejection, amplifying negative emotions (Yalvaç & Gaynor, 2021).

Associations between social media use and emotional outcomes

Ivie et al. (2020) conducted a meta-analysis study evaluating on negative impacts on using excessive social media use on symptoms of anxiety and depression. The study by Wadley et al. (2020) explores the relationship between social media use and emotional outcomes, highlighting that when people have difficulties regulating their emotions, they are more inclined to use platforms to adjust their mood, which, conversely, makes them more distraught in the long term. Similarly, the study by Davis et al. (2025) points out that Instagram or TikTok may provoke the feeling of inadequacy and will reinforce the cycles of negative emotion instead of mitigating them. However, not every fact proves the existence of an exclusively negative relationship. Yue, Zhang, and Xiao (2024) find positive correlations between online communication and perceived social support and argue that well-being can be improved via social media in specific circumstances. The findings of the mentioned study highlight that social media as such is not necessarily bad, but the consequences remain largely dependent on the characteristics of the users and their ability to control their emotions.

Agarwal et al. (2025) present arguments that maladaptive effects are not caused solely by screen time, with inadequate emotional regulation being the cause. Furthermore, Lippke et al. (2021) discovered that online time did not have a potent prognostic value on depression, yet emotional responsiveness to online experience had a substantive forecasting value on long-term well-being patterns. The results of the mentioned studies are consistent with the argument according to which social media becomes problematic when it is used as a maladaptive regulation mechanism, which solidifies the significance of emotional processes in describing variability in outcomes.

Mechanisms linking social media to emotional dysregulation

According to Yue, Zhang, and Xiao (2022), social comparison is the mechanism by which social media dysregulates emotion, which has been discussed in various models of psychology. The mentioned study findings determine that people who are vulnerable to dysregulation, such comparisons, experience negative affect that they are unable to down-regulate, and which results in compensatory behaviors like compulsive scrolling or excessive posting. Furthermore, the study by Wang and Wang (2025) identified the mechanism of intermittent reinforcement that includes likes and notifications are unpredictable rewards, which cause the activation of impulsive neural processes akin to gambling behaviors. It is evaluated that the mentioned signs in the above study are prone to dysregulated individuals since their reflective mechanisms that take care of self-control are influenced by stress or bad mood. The findings of the mentioned study conclude that what comes about is a loop of obsessive scrutiny that cannot address underlying emotional requirements.

The study by Gioia et al. (2021) evaluated that FoMO represents the inability to withstand uncertainty and negative affect in not being included in online communication. The mentioned study analyzed that people who lack regulation abilities react to it by keeping in touch all the time, and this paradoxically keeps their anxieties and dependence alive. Moreover, Yalvaç and Gaynor (2021) outlined that dysregulation is supported by maladaptive cognitive appraisals. The mentioned study evaluated that unstable people tend to appraise ambiguity in online responses as rejection and enhance negative affect. Therefore, the combination of these mechanisms creates the implication that social media does not per se create emotional dysregulation; instead, it collides with a priori vulnerable groups.

Improving Emotional Regulation Skills

Emotional regulation techniques have become a key to dealing with problematic social media use and digital dependency. Various psychological interventions, including cognitive and behavioral ones, and mindfulness-based interventions, are intended to reinforce self-control and minimize compulsive online behaviors.

Table 2.

Emotion Regulation Strategies to Reduce Digital Dependence

Factor	Description
Cognitive & behavioural regulatory skills	Strengthening regulatory skills protects individuals against compulsive engagement and digital overuse (Ferreira, Pêgo & Morgado, 2020).
Cognitive reappraisal	Reframing online experiences reduces distress, maladaptive checking, and FoMO, supporting healthier digital use (Wells, 2019).
Mindfulness (emotional awareness)	Cultivating non-judgmental awareness of emotional states decreases compulsive responses to notifications (Khalili-Mahani et al., 2021).
Short mindfulness training	Brief mindfulness interventions reduce obsessive social media use and lower reactivity to negative online stimuli (Chang et al., 2023).
Self-monitoring & time-limiting tools	Behavioural strategies such as usage tracking, app timers, and structured routines promote digital self-control (Alblwi et al., 2021).
Intervention limits in impulsive individuals	Emotion-focused strategies may be less effective for those with high reward sensitivity or impulsivity (Vallone et al., 2024).
Cognitive-behavioural interventions	Targeting maladaptive cognitions and emotional loops reduces compulsive internet use and negative feedback cycles (Lee, Kim & Lee, 2019).
Dual-process model (reflective vs. impulsive)	Strengthening reflective systems and reducing impulsive reactions enhances digital self-regulation (Cecchini, 2021).
TOTE model (feedback loops)	Awareness of iterative loops helps users break habitual scrolling and reinforce adaptive self-monitoring (Holton et al., 2024).
Integrated approaches	Combining cognitive, affective, and behavioural training with time management yields the most effective results (Zhang, Li & Liu, 2025).

Emotion Regulation Strategies to Reduce Digital Dependence

Enhancing emotion regulation has become a helpful direction in the reduction of problematic social media use. The findings by Ferreira, Pêgo and Morgado (2020) highlights that cognitive and behavioral regulatory skills strengthened can protect the person against compulsive engagement. Similarly, Wells (2019) determines that Cognitive reappraisal has always been linked to less distress caused by social media and fewer instances of maladaptive checking behaviors. From the findings of the mentioned study, it can be analysed that online social comparison reactivity was decreased along with FoMO among adolescents who received cognitive reappraisal training, pointing to the contribution of adaptive cognition to the management of digital behaviors.

According to Khalili-Mahani et al. (2021) mindfulness is non-judgmental awareness of emotive conditions and somatic signals so that users become aware of compulsive urges to read notifications without necessarily responding to them. Similarly, the study by Chang et al. (2023) analyzed that short courses of mindfulness decrease obsessive use of social media and lower emotional response to unpleasant online information. The study findings determines that the concept of mindfulness treats impulsive and affective dysregulation and complements cognitive responses by focusing on automatic emotional reactions that serve to support compulsive use.

Emotion regulation is supported with the help of behavioral strategies such as self-monitoring, time-limiting tools, and structured online routines, which offer external framework. The study by Alblwi et al. (2021) determines that time-restriction apps were equally effective as cognitive-behavioral approaches when combined. The findings from the mentioned studies imply that emotional regulation is not intrapersonal in nature: a combination of regulatory abilities and contextual adjustments improves the level of digital self-control. However, the study concluded by Vallone et al. (2024) evaluated that emotion-oriented interventions can be less effective with people with high reward sensitivity or impulsivity who still feel strong urges despite a higher level of regulation. Regardless of these shortcomings, the cumulative evidence offers evidence that enhancing emotion regulation competencies forms part of the core constituent in lessening problematic digital practices.

Integrating Psychological Science into Digital Well-Being Interventions

According to Lee, Kim and Lee (2019) the cognitive-behavioral pathology models of pathological internet use focus on the process of interaction between maladaptive cognitions, impulsive behaviors, and low skills of emotion regulation in maintaining digital dependence. The mentioned study findings determines that interventions can be used to decrease the reinforcing loops that maintain compulsive internet use by explicitly attacking these mechanisms. It is determined that assisting users to detect and reorganize distorted evaluations of social feedback discourages the negative emotional responses, hence reducing the tendency to engage in compulsive compensatory behaviors.

The use of Dual-process models (Impulsive vs. reflective systems) emphasizes enhancing the reflective systems (self-control) and inhibiting the impulsive reactions with the help of environmental signals (notifications, algorithmic prompts) and conditioning to delayed gratification (Cecchini, 2021). Meanwhile, the TOTE model demonstrates how the pathways of iterative testing and feedback loops can be re-purposed: users can consciously step out of the loop of habitual scrolling (Holton et al., 2024). It also demonstrated that when the regulatory goals are met, which will socially enshrine the adaptive self-monitoring behavior. Therefore, these models not only promote change in behaviors but also metacognition regarding patterns of emotional triggers and compulsions. The review of systematic reviews of intervention studies indicates that integrated methods including, cognitive restructuring, mindfulness, and behavioral frameworks have the biggest effects. The study by Zhang, Li and Liu, (2025) have found that interventions that combine cognitive and affective training with feasible time-management interventions decreased the severity and rate of social media overuse among young adults. More importantly, there is a bidirectional relationship in that emotion regulation also resulted in better emotion regulation outcomes, thus indicating that better emotion regulation decreases problematic use, which consequently stabilizes mood and decreases emotional volatility.

Conclusion

This chapter examined the interaction between the use of social media and emotional dysregulation and personality factors to add to digital dependence. People unskilled in dealing with negative feelings tend to resort to social media as a stress coping tool, which, conversely, leads to stress, anxiety, and obsessive online behaviours. Higher vulnerability is also increased by factors like impulsivity, neuroticism, and low conscientiousness, and maintenance of maladaptive engagement cycles by mechanisms like social comparison, fear of missing out, and intermittent rewards. The knowledge of these processes shows that emotional issues, but not social media as a phenomenon, are the focus of digital overuse.

The science of psychology offers theoretical and practical advice in reducing the effects of these. Improving emotion regulation techniques by using cognitive reappraisal and mindfulness, as well as more systematic behavioural responses, enables people to be publicly purposeful when using digital platforms. The enhancement of those skills helps decrease compulsive behaviours, contributes to adaptive coping, and enhances the general well-being in digital environments. The main message here is that emotional regulation is not just capable of reducing the threat of harmful social media use but also resilience, self-awareness, and better relationships with technology, which enables individuals to enjoy the advantages of online interactions without the need to negatively affect their emotional health.

Overuse: logging into the platforms for over 34 hours a day renders the user susceptible to addiction.

Passive consumption: Non-action to scroll encourages rumination and self-aggression.

Negative feedback loops: By rejection online or cyberbullying, someone becomes even more erratic emotionally.

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