Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Positive criminology and motivation
What motivates individuals to desist from crime and pursue rehabilitation?
Overview
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Jamie, a 24-year-old male, has been reincarcerated for the 3rd time after years offending, starting at 15. Maintaining the same friendships and making some new ones within the prison system, he's been excluded from family and treated like a lost cause by the legal system. He believes he is destined to a life of crime and doesn't believe he can change his own behaviour. He has taken on a criminal identity and feels like a social outcast, seeing little hope for a future outside of crime. Following his most recent incarceration, he received a lawyer experienced with principles within positive criminology, and focuses addresses Jamie with respect and social acceptance. His lawyer set up a peer-mentor who visits him in prison, who has over time fostered a belief in Jamie that he is capable of change, and of living a better life. Following this Jamie has accepted therapy to address negative experiences from early life and to move away from a criminal identity. |
Positive criminology, a branch of criminology, is founded on positive psychology perspectives, focusing on the individual as a whole, incorporating strengths, personal talents, and protective factors, with challenges, well-being, and risk (Elisha & Ronel, 2022). The primary concern of the positive criminology perspective is prevention, intervention, and rehabilitation by providing a phenomenological understanding of crime, finding common factors seen across criminal or deviant, or violent behaviour and utilising victims and community affected by the crime in the desistance and rehabilitation process (Ronel & Segev, 2013). The introduction of this branch of criminology was to address the common critique of criminology and traditional rehabilitation and punishment factors, being the intense focus on the risk and wrongdoings of the individual, and not seeing them as a whole person (Ward et al., 2014). Some psychological theories addressed in this chapter include cognitive transformation theory, identity theory, social control theory, and social capital. Models related to positive criminal rehabilitation including the restorative justice, risk-need-responsivity model and the good lives model.
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Focus questions
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Understanding positive criminology and crime
[edit | edit source]The rise of positive psychology has highlighted positive experiences as not being secondary to negative ones, and focusing on an individuals abilities and fostering positive emotions can help alleviate emotional difficulties and undo its root causes, according to Ronel & Segev (2013). This idea is reflected in a core principle of positive criminology, being 'by enhancing the positive, one can reduce the negative'. In other words, increasing positive experiences will discourage recidivism. Motivational research within positive psychology where goal pursuit is inline with individual core values and beliefs leads to personal growth, increases well-being and ability to adjust, improving ability for future-mindedness and the attainment of future goals (Ronel & Segev, 2013). This concept is particularly evident within the Good Lives Model, described in a section below.
Crime
[edit | edit source]Crime is generally socially determined, being seen as a behaviour contrary to the collective agreement of members within a society, suggesting it is typically inevitable in social societies according to Sarki, Z. M. (2019). They point out that within modern societies, crimes are seen as intentional acts violating terms defined through criminal law. Understanding the types of crime and typical motivations can aid in designing particular interventions and know which interventions to utilise in each instance of crime.
Table 1. A non-exhaustive list of types of crime.
| Types of crime | ||
|---|---|---|
| Violent crime | Property crime | Public order crime |
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While violent crime makes for a small percentage of reported crime, when it occurs, violent crime causes significant harm not only to the individual (Army & Vellani, 2021), but also the community (Hipp & Steenbeek, 2016). The violent crime category encompasses many types of the most jarring crimes, and typically create great fear within the community due to the laypersons assumption that offenders of violent or sexual crimes are likely to reoffend, though evidence suggests this is not typically the case (Grossi, 2017). These crimes are notoriously difficult to prevent, theorised to be due to the idea that violent criminals are impulsive and expressive, and incidents of a violent nature are often spontaneous and irrational (Army & Vellani, 2021).
Three categories of violent crime were outlined by Army & Vellani (2021), including dispute-related, targeted, and predatory violence. They describe dispute-related violence as an often impulsive, violent response to a perceived wrongdoing, either towards a stranger or non-stranger. Retaliatory violence falls under dispute-related violence in that it occurs due to the perceived wrong doing, but it involves two or more events of threats or violence, opposed to one impulsive act. Targeted violence is not typically impulsive or spontaneous, it involves an individual directing violence towards a particular person or group, with clear preference for that specific target or group. Mass attacks are a common example of this type of violence. The final type, predatory violence, is described as cold, calculated, and premeditated. The perpetrator is careful in their selection of the victim, often a stranger, and engages in hunting-like behaviour to obtain what it is they desire, like sex, money, or something else. This type of violence can include actual harm or threats of harm to reach the perpetrators desired goal.
Property crime, as described by Tcherni et al. (2015), involves property destruction and theft, falling under two categories, traditional and cyber crime. Traditional crime including vehicle theft or larceny, and cyber crime involving identity theft or credit-card fraud. Motivations for both types of property crime typically involve a desire to attain some kind of monetary or material gain, especially when the perpetrator also has a propensity towards deviant activity (Setayesh Radkani et al., 2023). There is evidence to suggest that traditional property crime is reducing and cybercrime is increasing in most countries due to increased access to the internet (Tcherni et al., 2015). A study conducted by Setayesh Radkani et al. (2023), in which participants started with a baseline, and introduced the concept of a 'desperation threshold', found that individuals who dropped below the baseline regardless of desperation were more likely to steal. Once individuals began to engage in behaviours of stealing, other individuals tended to engage less with others and work more independently to avoid victimisation, resulting in social isolation.
Finally, Asim (2024) describes public order crimes typically revolving around actions and behaviours which violate social order, and often the health, safety, and morals of society. Broken up into two categories, being disruption of the normal functioning of society, and a violation of rights. The main causes of these types of crimes include social or economic deficits, problems with family, poor education, and poor societal moral values contributing to a lack of respect for human rights.
Negative experiences seem to affect individuals more than positive ones, and there are correlational relationships between negative experiences and criminality (Ronel & Segev, 2013). Self-centeredness is another factor seen across most criminal behaviours, where the persons core motivations revolve around his or her own personal wants, needs and emotions while ignoring those of others. In a state of self-centeredness, the individual is fully occupied by, and motivated by, personal desires or feelings of threat, contributing to a sense of social and spiritual alienation, and others are perceived as object-like (Ronel & Segev, 2013). An additional key factor in criminality is a sense disintegration at intrapersonal, interpersonal, and spiritual levels (Elisha & Ronel, 2022).
Theoretical underpinnings to desistance and rehabilitation
[edit | edit source]This section defines desistance and rehabilitation, and to provide insight into the various theoretical perspectives on what drives these processes. This is through discussion of social theories, including social control theories and, social capital. Cognitive theories discussed will cognitive transformation theory and identity theories.
Desistance and rehabilitation
[edit | edit source]Worldwide recidivism rates lacks much research due to minimal reporting in many countries and varying operationalisation methods used to measure these rates, and it is difficult to generalise due to the heavy influence of economic and demographic factors (Yukhnenko et al., 2023). However, what does appear to be consistent is that recidivism rates after prison versus after community sentences had differences, though it is unclear if this is a direct result of the prison system or the severity of the offence resulting in imprisonment leading to further convictions.
Desistance describes the process of stopping criminal behaviour, and staying away from it, involved in personal agency and social factors. There have been three main ideas to describe the desistance process, being maturation, social bonds, and narrative identity (Kirkwood, 2021). Creating realistic strength based approach and avoidance goals may be involved in desistance, being avoiding negative outcomes of crime such us dangerous situations, imprisonment, guilt and stigma, and damage to social relationships, while also approaching a more satisfying and rewarding lifestyle, improving social bonds, gaining legitimate employment, improving feelings of fulfillment, with these approach based goals showing the best evidence for motivations, opposed to avoidance goals, due to the lack of the ability to work towards a pro-social life and instead focuses on avoiding deviant behaviours (Kirkwood, 2021). Desistance occur within the relationships of agency and social responses of others (Kirkwood, 2021).
There is a lack of consistent definitions across the literature regarding rehabilitation (Jang & Johnson, 2022). Many terms have been used describe the process of offenders re-engaging in society, and the processes used to undertake this. The term rehabilitation is used most often by psychologists, and reintegration is used more often by criminologists (Ward et al., 2014). Jang & Johnson (2022) suggest that there are different types of rehabilitation, opposed to one whole definition. These include personal or psychological rehabilitation promoting change at a personal-level by fostering new skills and addressing problems and judicial or legal rehabilitation addresses collateral consequences of the offence. Some ideas have included rehabilitation as: anti recidivism, harm-reduction, therapy, moral improvement, and restoration (Forsberg & Douglas, 2020).
Social theories
[edit | edit source]Another theory relating to desistance is social control theory. It suggests that offending behaviours occur when an individual has minimal bonds with society. It is on the four elements, including attachment, commitment, involvement and beliefs. Research into this theory has suggested that improving social bonds can improve rates of recidivism (Purohit et al., 2024). Asim (2024) therefor suggested that social bonds, including bonds with society, motivates people to refrain from criminal behaviour. They state that regarding public order crimes, policies may be implemented to deter individuals from committing crime by improving social integration from a young age.
Informal social control theory ties to feelings of relatedness, a sense of belonging within a social group, allowing for motivations for prosocial behaviour within that group (Youssef, 2022). Relationships with family, education and employment encourages desistance, especially if these relationships are improved upon in early adulthood (Purohit et al., 2024), suggesting that the longer an individual feels isolated, the more likely it is they will not desist. Particular emphasis is placed on the benefits of marriage and employment. However, women in abusive relationships, despite perceived close relationships, are shown to be hindered from crime desistance (Purohit et al., 2024).
Social capital in desistance contexts suggests turning points when it comes to offending cessation, including age, concern for children, and fear of harm or imprisonment (Purohit et al., 2024). This concept focuses on the value these relations have in reducing crime (Kay, 2020). Less social capital among youth has been identified as a risk factor for delinquent activities in adolescent years (Purohit et al., 2024). Strengthening social capital is seen as key in maintaining desistance efforts, and therefor should be prioritised in criminal justice policy and practice (Kay, 2020).
Cognitive theories
[edit | edit source]Cognitive transformation theory describes an individual moving from antisocial or criminally focused thinking patterns and beliefs towards prosocial attitudes (Bucklen, 2021). This theory helps describe the important relationship between motivation and crime desistance, focusing on four type of cognitive transformation (Kirkwood, 2021), described in the table below. Cognitive transformation is the goal of treatments because within cognitive theories it is thought that internal beliefs, attitudes and thought patterns directly influence external behaviours (Bucklen, 2021). Motivation then, based on this theory, could be encouraged through highlighting the values of desistance and creating a new identity for the offender to work towards.
Table 2. Based on Kirkwood (2021).
| Openness to change | This involves the individual incorporating a mindset in which a change in thinking and beliefs is welcomed. |
| Hooks for change | The offender is exposed to situations and provided opportunities to encourage shifting away from deviant behaviours. |
| Developing a replacement self | This 'replacement self' is a newly found vision the person has of themselves which is no longer involved in a consistent deviant lifestyle. |
| Shifting beliefs about the criminal lifestyle | This phase occurs when the individual no longer sees the criminal lifestyle and deviant behaviour as being consistent with their replacement self. |
Self-identity theory of desistance suggests desistance hinges on a shift in self-perception. According to Purohit et al. (2024) individuals who persist offending behaviour tend to adopt the identity of being a victim, blaming their actions on anything but themselves. Those who desist embrace an identity of redemption, expressing beliefs of control over their present and future. This mindset encourages a positive self-concept and motivations towards prosocial behaviour. Individuals maintain the offender identity when they perceive more benefits from maintaining the criminal lifestyle. People who maintain this offender identity perceive consequences of crime as bad luck (Purohit et al., 2024)
Identity theory of criminal desistance suggests that individuals increasing dissatisfaction with their life encourages decisions to change their behaviour (Weaver, 2019). It is suggested by Liu & Bachman (2021) that individuals make commitments to desired identities and behave in ways that are reflective of these desired identities. Identity change in offenders often occurs when the consequences are recognised as being undesirable, and the individual maintains this identity change by creating a positive law-abiding self-image, motivating prosocial associations (Purohit et al., 2024).
Programs fostering desistance and rehabilitation
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Many rehabilitation or treatment programs focus on "fixing" what is perceived to be wrong with the individual (Morse et al., 2022), critiqued for their narrow view of the individual, perceiving them as a bundle of risk factors, removing agency to address these risks (Ward et al., 2014). Positive criminology perspectives aim to address that critique by shifting from a risk-aversive model of rehabilitation to a strength based, holistic perspective.
Previous criminology studies have been focused on the aetiology of offending and its continuation. Developing understandings of human and social processes through which change occurs and is maintained is imperative to developing effective practice paradigms (Youssef, 2022). From a positive criminology perspective, research has supported the idea that environmental influences of social acceptance from community, family and friends, and positive feelings and attitudes of faith, hope, and gratitude towards the self and others, has propelled a desire towards prosocial behaviour and to do good for the society which accepts them (Elisha & Ronel, 2022). Desire for change, ad discussed by Kirkwood (2021) can arise from the offender being sick[clarification needed] of their current lifestyle, avoiding further incarceration, and/or wishing to be a good parent. This desire is instrumental in desistance and rehabilitation, though more often than not, it isn't enough to enact behaviour change, suggesting a method must also be in place to achieve the desired change, highlighting the importance of having a variety of programs in place (Kirkwood, 2021). A variety of models of rehabilitation have been formulated based on positive criminology principles and research. These include mentoring, faith-based programs, restorative justice and the good lives model, and risk-need-responsivity programs.
Faith-based programs
[edit | edit source]Faith-based programs have a significant positive impact on the well-being of individuals within the prison system by offering alternative belief systems about the meaning and purpose of ones life, and creating a cognitive shift in how the individual interprets reality encouraging virtues of compassion, forgiveness and gratitude, allowing offenders to develop a new self-identity (Elisha & Ronel, 2022), in line with the aforementioned identity theory of desistance. These elements of change in belief and emotion has been instrumental in the rehabilitation of offenders, both in short-term and long-term aspects, as well as quality of life within the prison system, including reducing instances of interpersonal aggression (Elisha & Ronel, 2022).
Mentoring
[edit | edit source]Mentoring acts as an external factor helping to build and maintain that motivation for change, after a desire for change has already been established (Kirkwood, 2021). The use of prisoners or ex-prisoners in rehabilitation programs has also been noted as a successful intervention program in prison or community correction frameworks, where these mentors use their lived experiences to assist peers in their reform (Elisha & Ronel, 2022). These programs have improved positive experiences through accomplishments and reduced isolation by increasing feelings of belonging, and building a sense of meaning, self-efficacy and self-esteem and, in line with identity theories and the cognitive transformation model, developing an imagined replacement self and and positive self-identity (Elisha & Ronel, 2022; Kirkwood, 2021), all of which aid in the commitment to desist from crime.
According to Kirkwood (2021) studies conducted across international contexts have consistently shown the importance of the nature of the relationship between the mentor and mentee consisting of trust, non-judgemental, caring, and listening mechanisms, providing practical advice and assistance, offering novel perspectives and celebrating the small wins. They suggest that among youth, there's evidence to suggest that generally, mentoring positively effects attitudes, psychology, development, and social and behavioural outcomes, with modest yet significant effects of delinquency reduction. While mentees look to their mentor for inspiration, they also benefit from the partnership and social nurturing that comes from this relationship. Kirkwood further suggests the mentoring helps to motivate desistance through observational processes as they witness the possibility of desistance, which exposes individuals to hook for change and assists in developing a new pro-social way of life. It also encourages individuals reflect on their new life-style and recognise how this is incongruent with offending behaviours. Kirkwood suggests mentoring has shown it's greatest influence on attitudes and motivation, most notably the mentees readiness to engage with mentors and to address problems. Evidence to suggested that mentoring helps individuals address issues in their lives including access to housing, employment, and influenced family circumstances and positively influenced drug misuse.
Restorative justice
[edit | edit source]Restorative justice (RJ) refers to a variety of practices which focus on remedying the harm experienced by those affected directly by the criminal act, utilising all parties with a stake in a particular offence and collaborating on how to best handle the aftermath of the crime focusing on desistance opposed to specific risk factors (Fulham et al., 2023). As of 2016, 80 - 100 countries implement restorative justice practices in offender rehabilitation using techniques such as victim-offender mediation and conferencing (Ness., 2016). The most common practices of RJ include circles, family-group conferences, and victim-client mediation (Fulham et al., 2023). Modern descriptions arose within the last half-century, but the underlying philosophies are much older. Ranging from ancient conflict resolutions practices and indigenous justice processes, with two of the hallmark RJ programs deriving from practices including conferences (traditional Maori practices from NZ), circles (First Nations practices from North America), and the concept of repairing the fabric of the community following crime arises from other indigenous concepts (Ness, 2016).
Fulham et al. (2023) found evidence suggesting that RJ programs had small yet significant effects for general recidivism, but less so violent recidivism, among both adults and juveniles. They noted inconsistent results across studies when it came to recidivism rates across general and violent crimes. The efficacy of RJ programs can also vary depending on the sample, program type, methodological quality, and moderators like types of crime, racial composition and, age of the sample. Fulham et al. also highlights several practices involved in RJ practices, including conflicts as property (giving victims and community more agency in the conflict resolution process), procedural justice (the justice system treats the offender with respect, aiming to lead to reciprocated prosocial behaviour), and reintegrative shaming (maintaining respect for the offender while also condemning the criminal behaviour). Programs based on these ideas had reports of greater victim and offender satisfaction, and more positive views of the procedural justice, along with higher rates of offender accountability. Effects were also positive for juvenile offenders in their feelings of being respected, level of engagement with the program, and comfortability with self expression. Importantly, they also notes RJ may not always be appropriate for all victims, depending on the levels of distress and nature of the crime.
Risk-need-responsivity model
[edit | edit source]The risk-need-responsivity model is an empirically supported theory of correctional rehabilitation (Fulham et al., 2023). This model contains six domains addressing factors that influence criminal behaviour: substance dependence, criminal lifestyle/cognitions, self-management programming, interpersonal skill programming, life skills programming, other non-justice responses (Taxman & Smith, 2020). It incorporating both assessment and rehabilitation practices, using four key principles, outlined by Bonta (2023). The first of risk, which involves matching risk of recidivism to the intensity and breadth of the services provided to the offender. The next, the need principle, addresses criminogenic needs. The third is the responsivity principle, which focuses on ensuring the treatment program aligns with the offenders abilities and learning style. The final principle is professional discretion, where the professional conducting the treatment is able to deviate from other principles under specific and unique circumstances when in the best interest of the treatment process. The efficacy of treatment programs has been shown to improve when one or more of these previous principles is incorporated. Critiques have involved a lack of a focus on strengths and missing a focus on specific sub-groups. An alternative offered is the good lives model which does offer a more strength-based approach.
Good lives model
[edit | edit source]The good lives model (GLM) has foundational concepts of universal human rights and dignity, with emphasis on human agency, according to Walgrave et al. (2019). They suggest GLM holds primary human goods (PHGs) which are behaviours, traits, states of mind and experiences that are intrinsically positive due to the outcome of improving an individuals well-being. PHGs are sought for their own sake, as opposed to a means to an end. Individuals can seek PHGs through harmful methods, including through violence, inappropriate sexual acts, and so forth. The goal of GLM, as stated by Walgrave et al. is to follow a strengths-based approach, which leans into the positive characteristics and capabilities of an individual, to give offenders the opportunity to improve their lives in a personally meaningful and socially responsible manner.
Ronel & Segev (2013) describe the GLM in that it aims to encourage rehabilitation by focusing on individual strengths and talents, promoting positive reintegration into society. It follows the positive criminology perspective that changing positive emotions and experiences changes underlying negative emotions and beliefs motivating deviant and anti-social behaviour, with the additional aspect of encouraging goal pursuit which is inline with the core beliefs and values of the offender, leading to growth, improved well-being and adjustability, and improved ability for future-mindedness and the attainment of future goals.
If the offender is provided with positive experiences dependant on their personal strengths and goals with the intention of shifting their belief of themselves and others, improving self-efficacy and agency over the issues perpetuating their criminal behaviour will in turn motivate them to engage in prosocial behaviours (Ronel & Segev, 2013). This model, according to (Walgrave et al., 2019), in a nutshell, posits that if individuals are really to rehabilitate from criminal lifestyles and pursue healthy lives that are prosocial and meaningful in nature, they must be equipped with different ways of living.
Conclusion
[edit | edit source]Recidivism among individuals who have previously committed crime varies significantly depending on the country, the type of crime, and the demographics of the individual. However, recidivism is a problem which should be addressed. Evidence outlined above has suggested that using positive criminology approach where the focus is on respect, strengths, and taking accountability is extremely useful through encouraging a shift from the criminal identity towards a law-abiding one, holding individuals accountable while still showing them respect, and encouraging social cohesion and acceptance within the community to build motivations for prosocial behaviours.
See also
[edit | edit source]References
[edit | edit source]Asim, S. U. (2024). ANALYSIS OF CRIMINAL LEGAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE CRIMES AGAINST PUBLIC ORDER. In the World of Science and Education, 15 декабрь ЮН. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/analysis-of-criminal-legal-perspectives-of-the-crimes-against-public-order
Bonta, J. (2023). The Risk-Need-Responsivity model: 1990 to the Present. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5b7ea2794cde7a79e7c00582/t/64b7431bdef69f1a7cb425c1/1689731867444/risk-need.pdf
Bucklen, K. (2021). Desistance-Focused Criminal Justice Practice. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/301501.pdf
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