Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Homeostasis and basic drives

Homeostasis and basic drives:
What is the role of homeostatic regulation in driving basic physiological needs?

Overview

Figure 1. Mount Everest the highest mountain on earth, a dangerous climb) Imagine this ... You are climbing Mount Everest and have just reached the summit. While enjoying the amazing view you notice your breathing begins to slow. Suddenly you are shivering, drowsy and you stumble as you walk over to another hiker. You try to say to the hiker that you're not feeling very good, but the words come out mumbled. Recognising the symptoms you panic as you realise you have the symptoms of hypothermia. Thankfully the body’s internal regulation system {g}} homeostasis ticks in, {g}} the hypothalamus compensates by increasing heat via shivering and vasoconstriction. Alongside using a warming blanket, homeostasis helps restore you back out of serious hyperthermia, you then can safely make it down the mountain. Homeostasis is much like a difficult mountain climb (see Figure 1), you can reach the peak but you have to get back down the mountain safely to restore the delicate balance of homeostasis.

Homeostasis is a physiological mechanism where the body maintains a stable environment despite changes. Homeostasis is often referred to as the body's own internal thermometer, regulating and controlling changes to maintain a overall balance within the body (see figure 2).

The importance of homeostatic regulation for basic needs is so significant that without it we would die. Think of blood glucose regulation or the enzymes within the body that only function under specific pH conditions, without these conditions they can die. The adaptive system that regulates, monitors change and returns us back to baseline is something we don’t normally take note of. When we are walking on a summer's day and begin to get hot, we slowly start to sweat and increase blood flow. This process is all facilitated with homeostasis and yet we don’t seem to appreciate its vast role in our well-being. Homeostasis remains an underappreciated aspect of physiology, it is vital to understand the inner workings of our most basic systems.

Without understanding the different aspects of homeostatic regulation, which is the self-regulating processes that allow our systems to stabilize despite changes in the internal and external environment. Then it is not possible to fully comprehend how amazing its functions are in driving basic physiological needs (Billman, 2020).

Psychological science can help us to connect understanding of homeostatic regulation with mental states. For example when emotional eating or binge eating can override hunger cues or when physiological stress interferes with normal sleep processes.

The more we understand about homeostatic regulation and the ways it informs basic physiological needs the more we can understand our biological makeup and apply psychological understanding to this knowledge to address current health gaps.

This book chapter focuses on the ways that homeostasis is involved in regulation of the body's basic physiological needs. The chapter introduces key theories, research, process of homeostatic regulation including hunger, thirst, temperature regulation, types of homeostasis, brain structures involved and the relationship between homeostasis and motivation.

Key homeostasis processes include maining blood pressure, temperature, oxygen, pH, and fluid balance. The chapter covers relevant theories that attempt to explain the role that homeostatic regulation plays in driving basic physiological needs.

Focus questions: What is homeostasis? What are basic physiological needs? How does homeostatic regulation impact physiological needs? How does homeostasis relate to motivation?

What is homeostasis?

Figure 2. Thermometer, showing high temperature. Homeostasis is often referred to as the body's own thermometer

• Homeostasis may be something you have heard before, or even the word itself might be completely new to you. You can think of it like an equilibrium or balance within the body.
• Homeostasis can seem complicated but really it is just the delicate process of maintaining and regulating a stable internal environment. Homeostasis is an important concept with more and more research being done to understand the complex areas of the body that work so tirelessly to keep us in balance.
• Homeostasis manages a range of bodily functions, on the cellular level homeostasis impacts and can be seen in the biochemical reactions such as pH, temperature, oxygen, blood glucose regulation (Libretti & Puckett, 2023). The internal environment must be delicately maintained for any changes.

History of homeostasis

• The word homeostasis is Greek for 'homeo' meaning 'similar to', and 'stasis' meaning 'standing still' (Libretti & Puckett, 2023).
• The concept of homeostasis originates from ancient Greek biology, Claude Bernard the physiologist described it as a ‘balance of internal environment’ (Liu et al., 2024). The term used today was coined by Walter Cannon, who emphasized the way the body changes to differing environments and self-regulates.

Key figures

• Claude Bernard (1865) - described internal environment
• Walter Cannon - was a major influential figure who coined the term homeostasis in 1926 (Libretti & Puckett, 2023).
• Carl Richter - related behaviour to maintaining homeostasis
• James Hardy - build on specific setpoint concept

What are basic needs?

(Figure 3. Pyramid showing Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs)

• Basic needs refer to needs that are essential for human survival, such as the fundamental need for food, water, shelter (this relates to homeostasis in regards to temperature)
• Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1943) (see figure 3) is a theory that aims to explain motivation through five basic needs.

1. Physiological needs: these are fundamental for survival such as water, food, shelter and clothing, and include basic homeostasis functions such as sleep.
2. Safety needs: safety and security in the environment, no crime, health and well-being, safety-nets.
3. Love and belonging: Social connection and acceptance, having friends, family, strong relationships, affection and intimacy
4. Esteem: Recognition, competence and respect, confidence, achievement and self-respect.
5. Self-actualisation: The releasing of one's full potential, personal growth, pursuit of meaning, joy and insight.

Areas of the brain involved in homeostasis

(Figure 4. Rotating view of brain and highlighted Hypothalamus gif)

• Brain structures involved in homeostasis include the hypothalamus (see figure 4), the brain-stem, cerebral-cortex and limbic system.

Hypothalamus

• The hypothalamus is responsible for satiety and is stimulated by leptin
• In particular, the hypothalamus and brain stem are both involved in regulation of food. The hypothalamus has a key role in the homeostatic regulation of energy and glucose metabolism (Roh et al., 2016)

See here for an interactive website of brain-regions: explore the drop-down menu to see structures involved in homeostasis.

Key aspects of homeostatic regulation through theories

• Homeostasis theory of well-being (Marks, 2024), this theory explains how we all have a core steady positive psychological well-being state. This state is changed with our emotions and thoughts but is aimed to be maintained back to a stable place.
  • Drive reduction theory (Hall, 1943)
  • This theory explains how individuals are motivated to satisfy biological needs, and when these basic needs are not met then a ‘drive’ to meet the physiological needs is produced (Ningjian, 2024). This theory specifically relates to homeostatic regulation of basic needs, such as hunger in order to reach homeostasis.
  • The drive to meet the physiological need and restore the homeostatic imbalance can be done using behavioural or physiological means. For temperature regulation the homeostatic physiological drive is vasodilation or sweating to reduce heat. While the behavioral drive to restore homeostasis might be finding cool water, shade and taking of any warm clothing (Sigmund, 2023).
  • Needs such as hunger and thirst can motivate us and create ‘drives’ to then act or behave. This motivation then drives us to seek or cook food to become full and not hungry to restore homeostasis.
  • Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory (Maslow, 1943)
  • This foundational theory connects and can be applied to homeostatic regulation through the way that physiological needs such as sleep, shelter and food are needed for homeostatic balance. An imbalance of any of the basic physiological needs according to Maslow's theory, means that these unsatisfied needs will cause tension and prevention from meeting the other higher needs.
  • Maslow's theory relates to motivation as physiological needs must be met, and attention to physiological needs that may be currently un-met such as lack of sleep, motivates individuals to take action to restore them, such as having a rest or sleep (Rojas et al., 2023).
  • see Table 1

Table 1. Homeostasis and key theory application

Theory	Application of homeostasis	Physiological need
Maslow	Maslow's theory explains how unmet physiological needs affect homeostasis, and motivates us to then meet these needs. Once basic needs are met the rest of Maslow's hierarchy pyramid need can be achieved.	Unmet needs such as sleep, temperature, hunger and thirst (applies to the basic physiological needs)
Drive-reduction theory	Internal changes disrupt homeostasis leading to a drive for a restoration of the imbalances.	A drive to seek food or water for hunger and thirst needs to be maintained

Relationship of homeostatic regulation and basic needs

Homeostatic regulation impacts physiological needs as homeostasis facilitates and monitors the body’s internal condition. Meeting the basic needs such as hunger, thirst and temperature regulation through a detection of changes using negative feedback loop processes. An example of this is thermoregulation, when the body is too warm then the homeostasis mechanism works by making you sweat and have vasoconstriction to cool back down.

Hunger and thirst:

• Hunger and thirst are basic physiological needs that are controlled and regulated by homeostatic mechanisms.

(Figure 5. young girls extreme thirst for water)

Thirst

• We have all experienced thirst, hopefully not to an extreme or dangerous degree that some unfortunately suffer (see figure 5). Overall, we know the feeling of being on a walk or run and feeling very thirsty for a drink. The mechanisms behind this restoration of thirst include homeostatic regulation. Loss of fluid is detected by osmoreceptors and then sent to the hypothalamus to cue drinking.
• If you're feeling stuck, check out the book chapter about thirst regulation to gain a better understanding.

Ghrelin

• Ghrelin is the hunger hormone, it signals to the brain to eat (stimulate appetite)
• Ghrelin functions are stimulating hunger (affecting food intake or hunger) growth hormone release and fat deposition (Pradhan et al., 2013).
• Ghrelin stimulates hunger and the declines after eating (typically three hours after eating).

Leptin

• Leptin is often known as the opposite of ghrelin, It acts as the body’s satiety or ‘fullness’ signal. Leptin stops production of the hypothalamus to stop the effects of ghrelin. Leptin sends signals to the hypothalamus about levels of energy storage (Yeung & Tadi, 2023).
• Leptin has also been linked to controlling reproduction, blood pressure and impacting the immune system.
• Large amounts of research surrounding leptin and links to obesity have been produced as an idea of widespread concern and interest in science.
• Together both leptin and ghrelin work in a balance to regulate energy, establishing homeostasis. (Yeung & Tadi, 2023).

Case Study Jacob is a 25 year old man who is a full time athlete sprinting for the track athletics team. Lately, he has been prepping for his big race, focusing on hydration as his sprint race is predicted to take place on a 36 degree day in January. Jacob has been having extra electrolyte sports drinks before training, a sodium filled breakfast and checking he is not dehydrated through urine colour. On race day, Jacob warms up but due to the increased heat from being directly in the sun his body begins to sweat and lose water and electrolytes. His blood osmolarity increases and osmoreceptors located in the hypothalamus direct this. Jacob has the urge to drink more water because of his hypothalamus activating the thirst center. - He rehydrates before his race and then wins his sprint race with no dehydration issues, this is because homeostatic regulation allowed for the early prevention of dehydration before his race began.

Table 2. Types of homeostasis and their mechanisms

	Types of homeostasis	Mechanisms
Thermoregulation	Constant internal temperature	(Vasoconstriction and sweating)
Chemical regulation	The balance of chemical substance	(blood glucose,pH, oxygen)

(Figure 6. Homeostatic regulation of temperature

Table 2. refers to types of homeostasis mechanisms, looking at differences of chemical regulation and thermoregulation.

Homeostatic regulation of temperature refers to the action of adjusting to the environment changes to maintain the ideal core internal body temperature (see figure 6.)

Quiz

1

True or False, the hypothalamus is important for regulation of body temperature?

	True
	False

2

When the body’s temperature gets too high (called hyperthermia), then the hypothalamus triggers to start the conservation of any body heat. It will do this with mechanisms such as shivering (this generates heat through muscle contractions).

	True
	False

What is the relationship between homeostatic regulation and motivation?

(Figure 7. A girl delicately balancing on a gymnastic beam much like the intricate balancing act that is the process of homeostasis, to maintain our necessary bodily functions).

• The relationship between homeostatic regulation and motivation is close, physiological needs such as hunger and thirst drive motivation to then impair the balance of homeostasis.
• Having a better control of signals of homeostasis along with motivated feeding behaviour could perhaps be a possible new treatment for conditions such as eating disorders and obesity (Ferrario et al., 2016).
• Homeostatic imbalances create physiological drives that start motivated behaviours to restore that balance. For example hunger creates motivation to then find, shop, cook and eat food. homeostasis relates to motivation in the way that the imbalance or negative feedback produces motivation to change or restore that balance.

Test yourself! Homeostasis regulation involves preventing the body from experiencing any changes at all? True False

Conclusion

This chapter explored the role of homeostatic regulation in driving basic physiological needs. It found that homeostasis can be understood as an equilibrium or balance within the body. It is the delicate process of maintaining and regulating a stable internal environment. The basic physiological needs explored can be connected to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, and are physiological needs (water, food, shelter, clothing and sleep). Safety needs, such as a safe environment and love and belonging via social connection. As well as esteem through recognition and self-actualisation needs. This chapter also explored the ways homeostatic regulation impacts physiological needs. This was explored by looking closely at basic needs of hunger and thirst and thermoregulation and examining how homeostasis is involved. Homeostatic regulation impacts the physiological need of hunger by making sure that leptin (fullness/satiety signal) is sending signals to the hypothalamus to ensure fullness and prevent overeating. Homeostasis relates to motivation because physiological needs such as hunger and thirst drive motivation to then impair the balance of homeostasis. For example hunger creates motivation to then find, shop, cook and eat food. Homeostasis relates to motivation in the way that the imbalance or negative fead-back process motivation to change or restore that balance. This chapter explored the role of homeostatic regulation in driving basic physiological needs. It found that homeostasis can be understood as an equilibrium or balance within the body. It is the delicate process of maintaining and regulating a stable internal environment. The basic physiological needs explored can be connected to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, and are physiological needs (water, food, shelter, clothing and sleep). Safety needs, such as a safe environment and love and belonging via social connection. As well as esteem through recognition and self-actualisation needs.

• This chapter also explored the ways homeostatic regulation impacts physiological needs. This was explored by looking closely at basic needs of hunger and thirst and thermoregulation and examining how homeostasis is involved. Homeostatic regulation impacts the physiological need of hunger by making sure that leptin (fullness/satiety signal) is sending signals to the hypothalamus to ensure fullness and prevent overeating. Homeostasis relates to motivation because physiological needs such as hunger and thirst drive motivation to then impair the balance of homeostasis. For example hunger creates motivation to then find, shop, cook and eat food. Homeostasis relates to motivation in the way that the imbalance or negative fead-back process motivation to change or restore that balance.
• Overall homeostasis is under-appreciated for its role in driving basic physiological needs. Such as, temperature by maintaining a constant internal temperature and adapting to the environmental changes. Hunger by sending leptin to process satiety cues and many more delicate balances. Homeostatic regulation is fundamental to all basic needs and should continue to be explored in depth.    

Answers to focus questions What is homeostasis? Homeostasis is the process of maintaining stable internal environment in order to maintain health and various body functions. What are the basic physiological needs? The basic physiological needs are food water, food, shelter, clothing and sleep. How does homeostatic regulation impact physiological needs? Homeostatic regulation impacts physiological needs by adjusting internal conditions to balance, maintain and suit physiological needs (like temperature or thirst). as Homeostasis facilitates, monitors the body’s internal condition and changes always adapting to be meeting the most basic needs. How does homeostasis relate to motivation? Homeostatic imbalances create physiological drives that start motivated behaviours to restore that balance. For example hunger creates motivation to then find, shop, cook and eat food. homeostasis relates to motivation in the way that the imbalance or negative feedback produces motivation to change or restore that balance.

See also

• Ghrelin (Wikipedia)
• Leptin (Wikipedia)
• Thirst regulation (Book chapter, 2025)

References

This section lists the cited references in APA style (7th ed.) or wiki style.

Balmores-Paulino, R. S. (2019). Homeostasis. In Springer eBooks (pp. 1–2). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_674-1

Billman, G. E. (2020). Homeostasis: The underappreciated and far too often ignored central organizing principle of physiology. Frontiers in Physiology, 11, Article 200. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2020.00200

Ferrario, C. R., Labouèbe, G., Liu, S., Nieh, E. H., Routh, V. H., Xu, S., & O’Connor, E. C. (2016). Homeostasis meets motivation in the battle to control food intake. Journal of Neuroscience, 36(45), 11469–11481. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2338-16.2016

Libretti, S., & Puckett, Y. (2023, May 1). Physiology, homeostasis. StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559138/

Liu, X., Li, X., Shen, P., Cong, B., & Wang, L. (2024). Fundamental role of brain-organ interaction in behavior-driven holistic homeostasis. Fundamental Research. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fmre.2024.09.005

Marks, D. F. (2024). Homeostasis theory of well-being. Journal of Health Psychology, 29(7), 721–733. https://doi.org/10.1177/13591053231216014

Ningjian, L. (2024). Drive theory. In The ECPH Encyclopedia of Psychology (p. 429). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-7874-4_294

Nikolaou, K., Brown, J., & Crombag, H. (2023). Motivated behaviour: Nutrition and feeding. In Behavioral Neuroscience TWU. https://doi.org/10.20919/zdgf9829/14

Pradhan, G., Samson, S. L., & Sun, Y. (2013). Ghrelin. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care, 16(6), 619–624. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0b013e328365b9be

Roh, E., Song, D. K., & Kim, M.-S. (2016). Emerging role of the brain in the homeostatic regulation of energy and glucose metabolism. Experimental & Molecular Medicine, 48, e216. https://doi.org/10.1038/emm.2016.4

Rojas, M., Méndez, A., & Watkins-Fassler, K. (2023). The hierarchy of needs: Empirical examination of Maslow’s theory and lessons for development. World Development, 165, 106185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2023.106185

Sigmund, H. (2023). Drive theory | Research Starters | EBSCO Research. EBSCO. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/psychology/drive-theory

Yeung, A. Y., & Tadi, P. (2023, January 3). Physiology, obesity neurohormonal appetite and satiety control. StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555906/

External links

• Homeostasis and negative and positive feedback (Amoeba Sisters/Youtube)
• Khan Academy lesson on homeostasis and body structures (Khan Academy.com)
• Mini podcast understanding homeostasis (BBC Bitesize podcasts)
• What is homeostasis? simple animation video (Free animated education/Youtube)