Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Future orientation and criminal behaviour
How does future orientation influence the risk of criminal activity?
Overview
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Imagine you're facing growing financial stress. Bills are piling up quickly, and the pressure to make money quickly is becoming overwhelming. In such a pressured environment you start to figure out options in order to afford life's demands. On the one hand, there is a tempting, quick-fix shortcut through crime, like robbing a store, which promises fast cash and instant relief. On the other hand, there is the option of applying for steady work, which offers a slower but more reliable income. When thinking only only of the immediate moment, the risky choice may seem appealing because it provides quick rewards. However, when you picture your future self - maybe as a working, stable and free of criminal charges individual, the longer path begins to make more sense. This process of weighing short-term gains against long-term outcomes reflects future orientation, and it plays a key role in whether individuals move toward or away from criminal activity.
Future Orientation, a critical component of identity development, is defined as a personally developed sense of identity through connecting the self across time and within social contexts (Johnson et al., 2016). When individuals lack a personally developed sense of identity formed through connecting the self across time and within social contexts, they may be more prone to making decisions that lead to criminal activity (Clinkinbeard, 2013).
- Between the years of 2023-24, there were 340,681 offenders proceeded against by police across Australia with the top crimes committed being intend to cause injury, drug offences and theft (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2025).
- Research suggests that individuals, particularly youth, with positive influences from teachers, peers, and other types of societal influences contribute to positive feelings of optimism increasing positive future orientation indicating a connection with a decreased need to participate in delinquency and substance abuse (Mueller et al., 2023).
- How does an individual's ability to imagine and plan for their future influence their likelihood of engaging in criminal behaviour?
- In what ways does a lack of future orientation contribute to impulsive decision-making and criminal activity?
- Can strengthening future orientation through interventions (e.g. goal-setting, education, or mentoring) reduce the risk of criminal behaviour?
Psychological understanding of future orientation
[edit | edit source]The psychological understanding of future orientation focuses on how people think about and prepare for their futures. It involves the ability to set goals, anticipate challenges, and make decisions in the present that align with desired outcomes. Future orientation is shaped by motivation, personal values, and past experiences, all of which influence how individuals approach planning and persistence. A strong sense of future orientation is linked to greater self-control, resilience, and optimism, while a limited focus on the future can lead to impulsive or short-sighted decision making. Psychologically, it reflects a balance between present needs and long-term aspirations.
Defining future orientation
[edit | edit source]Future orientation is a psychological construct that refers to the ways individuals imagine and evaluate their future selves including their aspirations, goals, and possible life outcomes. The core of this concept is the idea of possible selves, which are cognitive representations of what people might become, would like to become, or fear becoming in the future. Research suggests that these self-representations serve as motivational guides, influencing present behaviour by providing standards against which current actions are regulated (Hoyle & Sherrill, 2006). Future orientation has been linked to a variety of developmental outcomes, with studies showing that adolescents’ thoughts, beliefs, and hopes about their future are predictive of later life direction. For instance, negative views of one’s future have been associated with negative outcomes among youth exposed to school bullying and cyberbullying (Låftman et al., 2018). Developmental perspectives emphasize that future orientation is not concerned with predicting objective outcomes, but rather with constructing an individual representation of a desirable life. Seginer (2018) argues that these subjective visions are central to identity development, serving as motivational anchors that guide current decision-making and behaviour. Taken together, empowerment on future orientation highlights its role as a key mechanism in self-regulation and developmental processes, shaping how individuals set goals, respond to challenges, and direct their lives across time.
Influences on future orientation
[edit | edit source]Adolescence is a developmental stage often characterised by feelings of uncertainty and instability, with the phase "no future" used regularly by young people reflecting the challenges they face in navigating an unpredictable world. According to Trommsdorff (1986), adolescents are frequently confronted with shifting economic, social, and political pressures which shape how they perceive and plan for their futures. These circumstances make future orientation a critical component in young people's development in their ability to envision and prepare for what lies ahead. However, the ability to stay future focused is often undermined by procrastination. Chen and Kruger (2017) argue that when individuals prioritise tasks with immediate benefits while disregarding the long-term consequences, they display a weak sense of future orientation. Their findings suggest that when people perceive their likelihood of future success as low, they will be more inclined to procrastinate which will further lead to diminishing their motivation to pursue meaningful long-term goals. This cycle can reinforce a sense of hopelessness in young people whom already struggle with uncertainty. Alternatively, not all focus should be placed on young people's futures alone. Moss, Wilson, irons and Naivalu (2017) highlight that while those who maintain a clear sense of their future tend to have healthier behaviours, those who reflect on their past experiences can also experience similar psychological benefits. By analysing their past, individuals gain insights that can inform their decisions and enhance their motivation for future aspirations. This suggests that rather than concentrating solely on either future goals or past experiences, a balanced orientation is beneficial. Young people who can combine lessons from the past and still sustain clarity about the future may be better equipped to manage the insecurities of their developmental stage. Taken together, these perspectives highlight the complexity of future orientation in young people as it is simultaneously shaped by external challenges, personal perceptions of success, and the ability to find value in both past and future timeframes.
Psychological theories of future orientation
[edit | edit source]Identity development is a complex psychological process influenced by an individual's beliefs, motivations, and perceptions of time. Expectancy-Value theory proposes that people are motivated to engage in certain behaviours based on two main factors which are their perceived likelihood of success and the value they align to achieving that outcome (Urgvarsky, 2024). When individuals believe they can succeed at something and see it as meaningful, they are more likely to invest effort and persistence toward their goals (Ungvarsky, 2024). This perspective highlights how personal expectations shape current motivation and behaviour (Urgvarsky, 2024).
Similarly, Time Perspective Theory suggests that the way individuals view their time in the past, present or future will affect their thoughts, emotions, and actions. Those with a future oriented perspective often demonstrate greater goal setting, self control, and responsibility as opposed to those focused on the present may prioritise immediate pleasure or emotion driven decisions. Both theories emphasise the crucial role of cognitive and motivational processes in shaping behaviour and identity overtime.
Supporting these theories, the Identity Status Theory explores how people form their sense of self through exploration and commitment in key life areas such as values, beliefs, relationships, and career paths (Mercadal, 2024). According to this framework, individuals can fall into one of these four identity statuses based on the degree to which they have explored and committed to their choices (Mercadal, 2024).
- Achievement
- Moratorium
- Foreclosure
- Diffusion
Together these theories illustrate how motivation, time perception, and self exploration interact to influence personal growth. A person's expectations for success, their orientation toward time, and their level of identity commitment all contribute to the development of a coherent and stable sense of self.
Understanding criminal behaviour
[edit | edit source]Understanding criminal behaviour requires examining the complex interaction of psychological, social, biological, and environmental factors that shape an individuals actions and desires. Psychological influences such as personality traits, self control, aggression, and cognitive patterns can affect how people perceive and respond to situations, while social dynamics play a key role in reinforcing or discouraging antisocial behaviour. Biological factors, including hormone imbalances and genetic predispositions, may further influence aggression and impulsivity, particularly when paired with adverse environmental conditions. Additionally, psychological theories, including psychodynamic, social learning, and cognitive perspectives offer valuable frameworks for understanding motivations and thought processes behind criminal acts. By integrating these approaches, researchers and practitioners gain a more comprehensive view of why individuals engage in crime, helloing to inform more effective prevention, rehabilitation, and intervention strategies that address both internal and external drivers of offending behaviour.
Psychological and social influences
[edit | edit source]Criminal behaviour is a complex outcome influenced by a combination of psychological and social factors that shape in individual's emotions, thoughts, and actions. Research suggests that certain psychological traits such as personality characteristics, low self control, aggressive behaviour, and cognitive distortions are linked to higher levels of criminal activity (Kamaluddin, 2015). Individuals with low self control may act impulsively, while those displaying aggression, or distorted thinking may justify harmful behaviours or lack empathy towards others. Those internal traits can increase the likelihood of engaging in antisocial behaviour, particularly when combined with adverse social conditions. Dysfunctional family environments marked by neglect, abuse, or limited parental supervision have been shown to contribute to delinquent behaviour and later criminality (Le Blanc, 2016). Within such environments, children often experience emotional instability may fail to develop appropriate coping mechanisms or moral understanding. The absence of supportive role models and consistent guidance can lead to the development of deviant behaviours as a means of coping or belonging. When psychological vulnerabilities cross with negative social influences, the risk of criminal behaviour becomes significantly higher. This highlights the importance of understanding criminality as a product of both individual psychological traits and broader environmental contexts, rather than a result of one single factor.
Biological and environmental factors
[edit | edit source]Criminal behaviour is shaped by a combination of biological and environment influences that interact to affect how individuals think, feel, and act. From a biological perspective, hormones such as testosterone and cortisol play a significant role in regulating aggression, stress responses, and risk taking behaviours (Ellis, 2018). Elevated levels of testosterone have been associated with increased dominance and aggression, which may contribute to a higher likelihood of engaging in violent or antisocial acts. Conversely, abnormal cortisol levels can disrupt emotional regulation and impulse control leading to maladaptive coping mechanisms and heightened reactivity to stress. These biological predispositions do not directly cause criminality but may increase vulnerability to deviant behaviour when combined with negative environmental conditions.
Environmental criminology highlights how the spaces individuals inhabit and the opportunities available to them shape their likelihood of offending (Townsley, 2024). Those raised in deprived environments with limited access to education, recreational facilities, or positive social networks are often exposed to fewer prosocial pathways for development and greater exposure to criminal influences. In such settings, crime can become a logical response to limited resources or social exclusion. The interaction between biological factors and environmental factors illustrates that criminal behaviour arises not from a single cause but from the dynamic interaction between innate predispositions and contextual experiences. Understanding how hormonal influences cross with environmental deprivation provides valuable insight into why some individuals are more prone to criminal activity, emphasises the importance of both biological regulation and supportive, resource rich environments in preventing crime and promoting positive behavioural outcomes.
Psychological theories of criminal behaviour
[edit | edit source]Psychological theories provide valuable insight into the underlying mechanisms that contribute to criminal behaviour emphasising the roles of unconscious motivations, learned behaviours, and cognitive processes.
The psychodynamic perspective, rooted in Freud's psychoanalytic theory, suggests that criminal behaviour often stems from unresolved internal conflicts, repressed emotions, and negative early childhood experiences (Deb, 2025). According to this view, individuals who fail to successfully navigate early development stages may experience psychological imbalances that influence their capacity for moral reasoning, self control and empathy. Criminal acts, therefore, may arise as expressions of unresolved trauma or unconscious drives seeking release.
In contrast, Social Learning Theory focuses on how criminal behaviour is acquired through interaction and observation. It proposes that individuals learn values, attitudes, and techniques of offending by imitating others, particularly within their social environments (Akers and Jennings, 2019). Exposure to deviant peers, family members, or media representations normalises antisocial actions, reinforcing them through rewards or acceptance within those groups. This highlights the importance of environment and reinforcement in shaping behavioural choices.
Cognitive Theory, meanwhile, examines how thought processes and moral reasoning influence criminality. It advances that distorted thinking patterns, poor moral development, or faulty decision making processes can lead individuals to justify or fail to recognise the dishonesty of their actions (Mervyn and Ashton, 2023). Deficiencies in empathy, impulse control, and problem solving are common cognitive traits observed in offenders. Together, these three perspectives highlight that criminal behaviour is rarely the result of one single factor, but rather a complex interaction between unconscious emotions, learned experiences, and cognitive distortions. Understanding these psychological dimensions provides a foundation for developing effective rehabilitation strategies that address emotional conflicts, reshape learned behaviours, and correct distorted thinking patterns to reduce the likelihood of reoffending.
Connection between future orientation and criminal behaviour
[edit | edit source]The relationship between future orientation and criminal behaviour highlights how an individuals perception of time and future goals influence their choices and actions. Those with a strong sense of future orientation are less likely to engage in crime, as this mindset promotes self control and prosocial behaviour. In contrast, individuals with limited or negative views of their future often act impulsively, prioritising short term gratification over long term outcomes. Understanding future orientation as both a protective factor against crime and a risk factor when absent provides valuable insight into preventing offending and supporting positive behavioural change.
Understanding the relationship between future orientation and criminal behaviour
[edit | edit source]Research consistently shows that future orientation plays a crucial role in shaping behavioural choices, particularly in relation to criminal activity. A strong future orientation has been found to significantly reduce the likelihood of engaging in violent or impulsive acts. Studies reveal an opposed relationship between future orientation and criminal behaviour, meaning that as individuals develop a stronger sense of future focus, their involvement in violent crime tends to decline over time (Hoeve et al., 2012). In contrast, those with a short-term mindset, often driven by impulsivity, sensation seeking, and low self control are more likely to engage in criminal and antisocial behaviour (Dieter, 2023). Such individuals may prioritise immediate satisfaction over long term outcomes, reacting quickly to situations without fully considering the consequences. Environmental and experimental factors including unstable family environments and socioeconomic disadvantage can reinforce this short term thinking making a criminal behaviour appear as a rational or necessary means of coping or survival. Furthermore, research suggests that individuals who consistently seek short term rewards or immediate problem solving solutions are more susceptible to criminal involvement, as this mindset undermines long term goal planning and self regulation (Squillaro and Baxter, 2024). Those with strong future orientation, however, tend to develop greater resilience, self-discipline, and prosocial goals, reducing the appeal of crime as a pathway to success. Overall, the relationship between time perspective and criminal behaviour highlights the importance of fostering future oriented thinking in rime prevention and rehabilitation programs. Encouraging individuals to set long term goals and evaluate the future consequences of their actions can promote more adaptive decision making, reduce impulsivity, and ultimately decrease the likelihood of criminal offending.
Future orientation as a protective factor against crime
[edit | edit source]Future orientation functions as a significant protective factor against criminal behaviour by shaping how individuals, particularly young offenders, perceive their goals, choices, and potential futures. Motivation to succeed plays a central role in this process, influencing the extent to which individuals envision and work toward positive long term outcomes. For juvenile offenders, a strong internal drive to achieve success helps guide their decision making, encouraging goal setting, and engagement in prosocial activities that contribute to rehabilitation and personal growth (Chen, 2025). When individuals can imagine a meaningful and attainable future, they are less likely to engage in behaviours that threaten those aspiration. Research further indicates that developing a positive future orientation not only protects against antisocial and delinquent behaviour but also reduces the likelihood of reoffending and the severity of future criminal acts (Mueller et al., 2023). A clear sense of purpose and future direction fosters greater self control, emotional regulation, and commitment to lawful, productive lifestyles. Moreover, individuals who adopt a future focused mindset are better equipped to resist the influence of negative peers and impulsive tendencies that often contribute to criminal activity. Encouraging future oriented thinking through education, mentorship, and skill development can therefore play a critical role in crime prevention and rehabilitation. By helping offenders visualise achievable goals and connect present actions in future success, intervention programs can strengthen resilience, promote self-efficacy, and delay or prevent the onset of delinquency. Ultimately fostering motivation and a positive vision for the future empowers individuals to break cycles of offending, transforming future orientation into both a psychological strength and a key mechanism for long term behavioural change.
Lack of future orientation and criminal risk
[edit | edit source]Adolescents raised in violent or unstable environments often struggle to develop a positive sense of the future. Constant exposure to aggression, instability, or neglect can distort their understanding of safety and success, making violence seem like a normal or necessary response to life's challenges. This environment fosters hopelessness and a lack of positive expectations, as many young people come to believe that long term goals such as education or employment are unattainable (Stoddard et al., 2011). When individuals cannot imagine a better future, they become less motivated to engage in behaviours that support personal growth or stability. Instead, their focus shifts toward immediate survival and short term gratification, reducing concern about the consequences of risky and antisocial actions. As a result, impulsive and violent behaviours can appear rational or unavoidable. The absence of positive role models and supportive community structures further limits their ability to connect present actions with future goals. this disconnection perpetuates cycles of violence and criminal involvement. To counter this, interventions that foster hope, resilience, and future oriented thinking are essential. Encouraging adolescents to set meaningful goals and helping them visualise positive life outcomes can strengthen motivation, reduce engagement in risky behaviours, and promote more constructive, future focused decision making.
Conclusion
[edit | edit source]The interplay between an individuals sense of future and criminal behaviour underscores the power of psychological time orientation as both a risk factor and a protective factor. Those who maintain a strong, positive future orientation tend to exhibit more self control, goal directed behaviour, and resistance to impulsive decision making thereby reducing their likelihood of engaging in violence or crime. On the other hand, when adolescents grow up in volatile environments that reduce hope and constrain their ability to imagine better prospects, they often default to present focused, risk taking pathways and view violence or illegal acts as one of the few available means to immediate ends. Importantly, interventions that foster future orientation through mentorship, goal setting, education, and supportive relationships can help bridge the gap between present actions and future aspirations. By strengthening a sense of purpose and connecting behaviour to long term outcomes, such efforts can shift trajectories away from offending and toward more constructive, prosocial lives.
See also
[edit | edit source]Future Orientation (Wikipedia)
Crime (Wikipedia)
Positive Criminology and Motivation (Book chapter, 2025)
References
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External links
[edit | edit source]Criminal Behaviour Analysis (Spotify)
National Crime Prevention Framework (Australian Institute of Criminology)