Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Executive function and motivation

Executive function and motivation:
What role does executive function play in motivational processes such as planning, inhibition, and cognitive control?

Overview

Figure 1. A person creating a list at a desk. Imagine this ... You are sitting at your desk planning out your week and you start to consider what is involved in planning, inhibition and cognitive control. You start to reflect on your own personal motivators but want to understand more about why people plan and what is involved so, you come to this book chapter. Welcome!

This chapter focuses on the connection between executive function and motivational processes, such as planning, inhibition and cognitive control. This chapter explores the definitions of executive function, motivation and it's processes, along with the neuroscience and psychological theory behind them. Executive functions are important in everyday life as they assist with social and cognitive functioning (Jacobson et al., 2011). Executive functions are closely connected to motivation and the processes motivation encompasses. Executive functions are the goals to which motivation defends. Motivation is shared by all animals as a requirement to survive (Simpson & Balsam, 2016). The connection between executive functions and motivation, including it's processes, can be shown through neuroscience and psychological theories. Neuroscience is important in understanding the underlying processes within executive function and motivation to discover the physiological connection, whereas psychological theories are important to understand how those processes are shown behaviourally. Neuroscience shows the main connection of executive functions and motivational processes to exist within the prefrontal cortex. The psychological theories show the importance of understanding one's motivators and the forces behind it.

Focus questions What is the connection between motivation and executive function? What brain regions are involved in motivation and executive function? How does executive function assist motivational processes such as planning, inhibition, and cognitive control? What theories explain the link between motivation and executive function?

What is executive function?

Executive function has been described as "high-level cognitive processes" (Gilbert & Burgess, 2008, p.110), the ability to adjust and focus (Diamond, 2013), and the ability to regulate with a goal in mind (Moriguchi et al., 2016). For the sake of this chapter executive functions will be defined as high-level cognitive processes assisting in the adaptation within new situations both emotionally and behaviourally (Diamond, 2013; Gilbert & Burgess, 2008; Moriguchi et al., 2016).

Executive functions have often been identified as goal-directed behaviours relating to inhibition and problem solving (Best et al., 2011). Doebel (2020) argues the importance of understanding executive function development as the goals are influenced by a persons' "knowledge, beliefs, norms, values, and preferences" (p. 942). Likewise, "good executive function has been linked to many positive outcomes in academic performance, health, and social competence" (Blackwell et al., 2014, p.356). Studies have further exaggerated the importance of executive function development and its link to academic achievement. A study conducted by Best et al. (2011) found a strong relationship between executive function and academic achievement as executive functions develop to assist cognitive processes. Furthermore, Re et al. (2015) found the importance of training executive function in order to improve attention, impulse control, and working memory.

What is motivation?

Imagine this ... You are involved in a competition at work. This competition means you need to meet a step goal of 10,000 per day in order for you and your competition partner to win. You are a competitive person so you want to win but you don't really like to walk. Wanting to win the competition is what has motivated you to meet the step count.

Figure 2. Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

Motivation drives people to behave and act in certain ways and is how they pursue goals (Clanton Harpine, 2015; Simpson & Balsam, 2016). There are two kinds of motivators, intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation is driven by internal desires like physiological needs, whereas extrinsic motivation is driven by external factors like money (Clanton Harpine, 2015). Motivation encompasses all aspects of life as is shown in Maslow's hierarchy of needs (see Figure 2). Abraham Maslow is a big name within motivation research as he outlines the five main categories surrounding motivation and human needs in addition to what people strive towards (Dar & Sakthivel, 2022).

What are motivational processes?

Where executive function is goal-directed behaviours, motivation is the instigator and defender of goal-directed behaviours (Best et al., 2011; Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2020). Motivational processes are the main tasks within motivation, they encompass planning, inhibition and cognitive control, and link to executive function.

Planning

Planning is the attempt to activate cognitive processes in order to achieve a goal or task (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2025). Gollwitzer and Sheeran (2025) state that psychology has analysed planning from multiple lenses. Within this chapter, the cognitive psychology definition will be used. Executive function is linked to planning as they are the skills that assist the motivational processes (Blair, 2016).

Inhibition

Inhibition is the ability to make decisions and stop impulses or behaviour (APA, 2018). Elliot (2017) stated that inhibition is an important factor in the control of attention, behaviour and emotions. A few noteable names to have referenced inhibition within psychological research include Sigmund Freud and Ivan Pavlov (Ungvarsky, 2023). While inhibition is a motivational process, Lane et al. (2023) states that inhibitory control is an executive function enabling focus and control attention, behavioural and emotional responses. This shows the cross-over of executive functions and motivational processes as the explanations between the two are remarkably similar.

Cognitive control

Cognitive processes encompass "attention, perception, learning, and problem solving" (APA, 2018). Metacognition is the ability to assess and manage cognitive process, "commonly defined as thinking about thinking" (NSW Department of Education, 2020).

Marulis and Nelson (2020) investigated the relationship between metacognitive processes, executive function and motivation. The study found that executive function and motivation could be predicted by metacognitive processes, executive function being predicted by metacognitive knowledge and motivation being predicted by metacognitive skills (Marulis & Nelson, 2020).

What are the brain regions involved in motivation and executive function?

Figure 3. An animation of the anatomy of the human brain.

The brain is a magnificent part of the human body with the ability to interpret senses, initiate body movement, and control behaviour (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2025). The brain is split into many sections (see Figure 3) with different abilities, like information processing, balance, and movement. Neuroplasticity surrounds many executive functions, as it is the adaptability of the brain and its processes (Gazerani, 2025).

Studies have been conducted in order to identify the intersection between executive functions and the motivations with which helps humans survive within the brain. A study by Taylor et al. (2004) utilised functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to visualise the cross over between motivation and emotion. This study found the main effects within the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, superior frontal sulcus, and intraparietal sulcus (Taylor et al., 2004).

Much of the research surrounds the prefrontal cortex and its relationship to cognitive control and executive function. According to Friedman and Robbins (2021) cognitive control is often associated with a healthy prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is responsible for exerting influence on aspects of higher order cognitions and executive functions according to goals held in mind (Blackwell et al., 2014; Chrysikou et al., 2014).

Theories

There are many theories of motivation. Over the past decade, literature has reduced the theories to a few main theories , appearing within studies and being developed to other similar theories. These theories are not only important in understanding motivation, but also understanding the deeper roots of motivational processes, i.e. planning, inhibition, and cognitive function, within executive function. Notable theories in the understanding of executive functions include drive theory, goal-setting theory, and achievement motivation theory. It is also important to note the close ties each of the theories have to one another.

Will

Will is less of a theory and more of a philosophical root to which studies have been developed. Similarly, free will is a term often used within psychology, referring to the ability to make choices (Michael, 2024). This ability to make choices is connected to many definitions within psychology, including understanding the motivation behind actions. Likewise, will links to the idea of inhibition, with the ability to make choices being the main focus of this theory. With research like the study from Lane et al. (2023) stating that inhibitory control is an executive function in and of itself, it is important to recognise that will plays a part within the connection of motivational processes and executive functions.

Instinct theory

Instinct theory seeks to understand the inherited behaviours that are present from birth (Tiemann, 2024). Similar to will, it has philosophical roots but took off after Charles Darwin's theory of evolution (Tiemann, 2024). The idea of instinct and the inherited behaviours present from birth can assist with understanding motivation through the hierarchy of needs and executive functions as the push behind motivation.

Drive theory

Drive theory is the framework explaining behaviour as a response to needs (Hsiao, 2023). This idea is important in the understanding of motivation as it links closely to Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Important names behind the drive theory include Sigmund Freud and Clark Hull. Freud's psychodynamic or psychoanalytic theory utilised the idea of the id, ego and superego, with the ego being the driving factor of the human mind (Hsiao, 2023). Hull's drive reduction theory is the theory that a person needs to reduce the physiological or psychological imbalances relating to motivational drives (Carvalho & Conde, 2024). Similarly, without drive reduction there would be no reinforcement to encourage learning (Hsiao, 2023). Executive functions are important within drive as they are the goal-directed behaviours behind motivation.

Goal setting theory

According to Locke and Latham (2019) the goal setting theory has shown generalisability across many studies and modalities "participants, tasks, nationality, goal source, settings, experimental designs, outcome variables, levels on analysis (individual, group, division, and organisational), and time spans" (p.1). This theory involves both mediators (choice, attention, effort, and persistence) and moderators (feedback, commitment, ability, perception) (Locke & Latham, 2019). According to Miner (2005, p. 161) "a goal-setting process is assumed to intervene between task perception and actual performance".

Executive functioning is a critical factor within a wide range of human functions (Doebel, 2020). These human functions include goal-directed behaviours and motivational processes such as planning, inhibition and cognitive control. These processes are linked to the goal setting theory as well as executive functions as motivations are backed by these functions.

Achievement motivation theory

According to Miner (2005) the achievement motivation theory was first developed through an investigation into hunger needs, and was since expanded to include affiliation, power, aggression, sex, fear, and achievement, with achievement motivation showing the greatest development. This theory is based on intrinsic motivation (Miner, 2005), meaning that achievement is an internalised reward. A study conducted by Zhao et al. (2018) found cognitive control could be influenced by achievement motivation. Within this study the terms cognitive control and executive processes were used interchangeably showing the deep underlying connection of executive functions and motivational processes.

Self-determination theory

Self-determination theory focusses on the factors facilitating or undermining intrinsic motivation, autonomous motivations, and psychological wellness (Ryan & Deci, 2020; Wigfield et al., 2021). Similarly, this theory seeks to satisfy these "basic psychosocial needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness" {{ic|p. ?) as a way to promote motivation (Cook & Artino, 2016). Intrinsic motivators include basic motivations like food and water, as well as the more complex motivators like achievement. These motivators have been shown to connect with executive functions through cognitive control (Marulis & Nelson, 2020).

Intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation is the ability for one to seek challenges, be curious and develop skills and knowledge (Di Domenico & Ryan, 2017). Intrinsic motivation is closely tied to the self-determination theory and its principles. Similar to self-determination theory, intrinsic motivation also shows basic motivators and their connection to executive function and cognitive control. Intrinsic motivation has also been shown to link to goal association, goal pairing, link between activity and the goal, and proximity of the goal (Fishbach & Woolley, 2022). According to Fishbach and Woolley (2022) increasing intrinsic motivation involves factoring in choice, bringing immediate benefits, and putting attentional focus onto these benefits. This means activating the executive functions involved in motivation will increase the benefits of intrinsic motivation.

Self-schemas

Self-schema refers to a person's self-knowledge and self-perception shaped by experiences (Ungvarsky, 2025). A longitudinal study conducted by McArthur et al. (2019) stated that self-schemas are a "possible pathway to improve adolescents' functioning and promote positive developmental outcomes". This means that increasing the positive core beliefs about oneself is important for positive development. Self-schemas can be associated with self regulation as the way a person regulates can become a part of the way they see themselves. Current literature states the importance of self-regulation to assist with executive functions (Hofmann et al., 2012). This connection between self schemas and executive function is important in the understanding of motivational processes such as cognitive control.

Quiz

1 Executive functions and motivational processes are one and the same in current literature: True False 2 Executive functions are not involved in motivational processes: True False

Conclusion

Motivational theories closely link executive functions and motivational processes such as planning, inhibition, and cognitive control. Likewise, neuroscience has linked executive functions and motivations to the prefrontal cortex, showing that there cannot be one without the other. Cognitive control and executive functions are used almost synonymously across current literature showing the depth to which motivation and executive function is connected. The difficult part within current literature is determining what a motivational process is and what an executive function is. As they are often activated within the brain at the same time it becomes challenging for researchers and theorists to definitely determine the differences. Future research within the field of executive function and motivation should attempt to distinguish the differences between the two. Similarly, theorists should reflect upon current literature to determine if they are in fact of the same process.

Take home messages... Motivation and executive functions have a significant overlap Research often states that motivational processes and executive functions are one and the same

See also

• Automaticity in goal striving (Book chapter, 2025)
• Executive functions (Wikipedia)
• Motivation (Wikipedia)

References

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External links

• Cognitive process (American Psychological Association)
• Inhibition (American Psychological Association)
• Use motivation theory to inspire your team's best work (K. Boogaard, Atlassian)
• Brain basics: know your brain (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke)
• Metacognition – a key to unlocking learning Key insights and implications for teaching practice (NSW Department of Education)
• Interactive brain (Society for Neuroscience)