Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Defence mechanisms and emotion regulation

Defence mechanisms and emotion regulation:
How do psychological defence mechanisms regulate emotions under stress?

Overview

Figure 1. A man who is stressed at work Case study 1 Imagine you're a psychologist working with a man who has recently taken stress leave from his advertising job (see Figure 1). He had taken on a major campaign with tight deadlines, while also experiencing relationship problems with his girlfriend. As a result, he became increasingly irritable and anxious. He often arrived late to work and missed meetings. He even lashed out at the cleaners, calling them lazy. When confronted, he denied that his relationship issues affected his performance. Using established criteria (see Table 1) you identify projection as a defence mechanism he uses to cope with stress and protect his self-esteem.

Defence mechanisms are unconscious strategies that protect the self by temporarily reducing stress and anxiety. They work by distorting or avoiding reality to regulate emotions and maintain psychological stability. Current psychological models like psychoanalysis, identify 10-12 key defence mechanisms. Other models describe up to 30 types used across the life span (Di Giuseppe et al., 2021; Freud, 1966). Common defence mechanisms include repression, rationalisation, denial and projection. Short term use of defence mechanisms can be helpful. However, long-term use can lead to mental health issues, hinder emotional growth, create relationship problems, and establish unhealthy habits such as substance abuse.

Focus questions What are defence mechanisms and their role in emotion regulation? How many levels of defence mechanisms are there? How do defence mechanisms develop across the lifespan? What are the psychological theories that best explain the use of defence mechanisms?

What is emotion regulation?

Figure 2. Diagram showing the functions of each type of the nervous system.

Emotion regulation is the ability to manage how and when emotions are experienced. It is crucial for social functioning and psychological wellbeing. Several theoretical frameworks explain emotion regulation;

• Gross' process model: five stages of emotion development; situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change, and response modulation.
• Dual process theory: differentiates automatic and controlled regulation.
• Polyvagal theory: identifies the role of the autonomic nervous system in managing emotional arousal (see Figure 2).
• The cognitive behavioural model: Emphasises how thoughts influence emotions, suggesting altering thinking patterns can regulate emotions.

Defence mechanisms

Defence mechanisms are automatic, unconscious strategies to cope with stress and anxiety. Vaillant (1992) categorises them into four types; pathological, immature, neurotic, and mature. When predominant, the pathhological mechanisms permit the individual to radically reshape external reality in order to avoid coping with it. Immature defences such as denial and projection tend to distort one's reality and tend to be maladaptive coping strategies. Neurotic defences such as displacement and repression help manage distress but have been associated with poorer long-term emotional adjustment. Mature defences such as humour, suppression and sublimation enable more adaptive coping strategies and support long-term emotional growth.

Which statement best describes the role of psychological defence mechanisms? They are conscious strategies to solve problems. They are unconscious strategies to protect the self from stress and anxiety. They are deliberate ways to manipulate others' perceptions. They always create long-term mental health issues.

Identification

Clinicians assess specific criteria against clinical observation to determine the influence of adaptive and maladaptive defence mechanisms based on patterns of behaviour and emotion regulation. This may present as avoidance, reality distortion, aggression, forgetfulness or conflict in relationships (see Table 1). Additionally, the impact and maturity of the defence mechanisms is assessed through consideration of other behaviours such as substance abuse and risk-taking behaviours (see Table 1). Once identified, clinicians explore these further to help understand and influence healthier coping strategies that support healthier emotion regulation.

Table 1.

Key Behaviours and Criteria Clinicians Use to Identify Defence Mechanisms in a Client.

Behaviour/Criteria	Evidence
Unconscious Operation	Individual is unaware of the use of defence mechanism, and are identified by clinical practitioner who observes patterns in thought, behaviour and emotional response.
Distortion or avoidance of reality	Individual has difficulty recalling a specific event, becomes aggressive in the acceptance and/or denial of event or emotion, or demonstrates impaired judgement on event.
Influence on behaviour and relationships	Individual demonstrates clearly observable behaviour in interpersonal contexts, creating conflict and problems within relationships as a result of poor emotion regulation and projection.
Anxiety or conflict reduction	Individual may present as rigid, emotionally reactive, or behaving to their opposite display of emotions and behaviour.
Level of maturity	Individual may demonstrate the use of maladaptive coping strategies as a result of subconscious defence mechanisms eg. drug use, alcohol consumption, risk-taking behaviour.
Habitual or situational use	Individual demonstrates a long-term use of psychological defence mechanisms, reflected in their personality and potential mental health disorders, rather than using situationally when required.

Hierarchy of defence mechanisms

George Vaillant's (1992) developmental theory explains how defence mechanisms develop across the life span. He categorises them into immature, neurotic, and mature (Perry et al., 2013; Vaillant, 1992). This hierarchy reflects both the sophistication of coping strategies and their potential impact on long-term emotional growth and social functioning.

Immature

Immature defence mechanisms are often triggered under stress when an individuals ability to regulate emotions is limited. These mechanisms distort or deny reality to reduce feelings of overwhelm, providing only short term relief (Di Giuseppe et al., 2021). Examples include denial or projection, where individuals may externalise blame or refuse to acknowledge internal conflicts. Immature defences are frequently observed in adolescents or individuals experiencing high stress or previous trauma, identified through poor self-regulation, impulsivity and increased vulnerability to mental health issues such as personality disorders, depression and anxiety (Perry et al., 2013). Over time, persistent use can reinforce maladaptive coping patterns and hinder one's emotional development.

Neurotic

Neurotic defence mechanisms represent a more developed stage of defences compared to immature ones, allowing individuals to maintain a connection to reality while keeping distressing thoughts, feelings or impulses out of conscious awareness (Cramer, 2015). Common examples include repression, displacement, and intellectualisation, where stress inducing material is pushed away or redirected in a socially acceptable manner. Neurotic defences can be adaptive in moderating emotional intensity and enabling daily functioning, however, long-term reliance may manifest as psychosomatic complaints, interpersonal issues, and memory loss (see Case Study 2). They offer temporary emotional relief but may slow emotional maturation, particularly when underlying stressors such as external environmental stressors, trauma, or mental health issues are unaddressed (Perry et al., 2013).

Figure 3. Scales of justice Case study 2 In the controversial Jane Doe case, 1984, a woman alleged to have recovered repressed childhood memories regarding childhood sexual abuse she had been subjected to. This case raised concerns about the validity and accuracy of her memories, suggesting that therapeutic techniques influenced her thought retrieval and possible mis-formation of 'false memories'. The long-term use of repression, accompanied by adult influence of previous memories, caused memory loss and confusion to Jane Doe regarding her past. Additionally, such confusion around her alleged abuse led to a long drawn out legal hearing, influencing the adaptation of further repressed memories and confusion during this difficult time.

Mature

Mature defence mechanisms support emotional regulation through adaptive coping strategies that reduce stress without distorting reality or avoiding internal conflict (Vaillant, 1992). Mechanisms such as sublimation, humour, and altruism allow individuals to transform or channel negative emotions into productive or socially constructive behaviours. For example, sublimation may involve using work, exercise or creative expression to manage frustration, while humour helps reframe difficult situations and experiences. Long-term use of mature defences promotes emotional resilience, self-esteem and improved social functioning, enabling individuals to navigate complex challenges and emotions while enabling personal growth and development (Cramer, 2015).

How they develop and operate

Defence mechanisms are implicit emotion regulation strategies that adapt and evolve in response to stress, automatically interfering with the impact it will have on the individual's psychological wellbeing. This evolution is continuously changing to reflect the individual's level of emotional maturity, while influenced by prior biological, psychological and social experiences that shape their defences (Engel, 1977; Vaillant, 1992).

Across the life span

Cognitive and emotional responses are underdeveloped in the early years of life, resulting in children who begin to rely on primitive defences such as fantasy, regression, projection and denial (Cramer, 2015; Vaillant, 1992). These are commonly categorised as immature or neurotic defence mechanisms. Through adolescence and adulthood, mature defences begin to develop, such as sublimation and humour, facilitating greater emotion regulation through the transformation or redirection of their emotions during stress (Vaillant, 1992). However, the application of these defences combined with stage of development is heavily influenced by childhood experiences including attachment style, and exposure to trauma and stress. Attachment theory suggests that secure attachment is associated with greater use of defence mechanisms, whereas insecure attachment is associated with greater relaiance on immature and maladaptive defence mechanisms (Ciocca et al., 2020).

According to Vaillant's theory, which defence strategies are most typical in children? Use of mature defences like humour and sublimation. Reliance on neurotic defences like repression and displacement. Use of immature defences like fantasy, regression and projection. Exclusive use of adaptive emotion regulation strategies.

Biopsychosocial model

Figure 4. The biopsychosocial model influencers.

Engel's (1977) biopsychosocial model (see Figure 4) helps understand the development of defence mechanisms through the lens of biological, psychological and social influences. The biological response to stress is the triggering of the limbic system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Chronic activation of these systems throughout early development reduces resilience in response to stressors in adulthood, as well as increase the likelihood of maladaptive defences to be used (Cramer, 2015; Engel, 1977; Seo et al., 2019). Psychological influencers such as previous exposure to trauma and stress and attachment styles influence how one interprets and reacts to stressors, and whether they use mature or immature defences (Perry et al., 2013). Social environments including upbringing and life experiences determine an individuals interpretation of stressors and ability to emotionally regulate using adaptive or maladaptive defences.

Clinical populations

In clinical settings, defence mechanisms are commonly identified in individuals diagnosed with trauma related disorders. These are typically observed through behaviours aimed to reduce or ignore severely distressing emotions, memories, and thoughts.

Psychodynamic therapy

Analysis of defence mechanisms in clinical settings is seen in psychodynamic therapy,, where clinicians observe behaviours, thought patterns and emotional responses as a result of psychological distress (see Table 1). Psychodynamic therapy is typically applied to individuals with trauma related mental health issues, to help identify and bring to conscious awareness use of defences to promote emotional processing (Cramer, 2015). Additionally, it facilitates the transition from immature defences to mature ones, supporting emotional resilience, self-awareness, and long-term psychological wellbeing (Vaillant, 1992). Psychodynamic therapy also allows for addressing the underlying trauma causing immature or neurotic defences in a way that does not overwhelm the ego (Bernstein, 1986).

Post traumatic stress disorder

Individuals with post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) use defence mechanisms that protect themselves from reliving or remembering traumatic memories. These include dissociation, repression, denial and projection. Such defences block recall of events and emotions, and manifest into hypervigilance to preserve psychological wellbeing in perceived threatening environments (Bernstein, 1986). Avoidant behaviours are underpinned by these defences, and although they may offer short-term relief, persistent use can result in memory distortion and loss, emotional numbing, and possibly exacerbate PSTD symptoms (Vaillant, 1992).

Dissociative identity disorder

Dissociative identity disorder (DID) is a mental health condition where the individual experiences two or more personalities to help cope with distressing emotions, thoughts and memories. Multiple personalities are created through the use of compartmentalisation, a defence mechanism that in this instance is used to divide traumatic memories or emotions across the different personalities. Dissociation is also used as a defence to aid the individual in disconnecting from their reality (Bernstein, 1986). Although, these are initially protective defences for psychological wellbeing, sustained use can result in significant memory loss and interfere with daily functioning (Bernstein, 1986).

Figure 5. Scared woman that feels sad and alone Case study 3 Sarah (see Figure 5) was subjected to emotional abuse and neglect from her parents from a young age. She learned to cope with the distress by dissociating into a fantasy world she created within her imagination, with imaginary friends to connect to. Throughout her teenage years, when Sarah was stressed she would exhibit behaviours of regression, such as thumb sucking and bed-wetting. As an adult, her trauma manifested itself into denial of her dysfunctional family. As a result of her long-term reliance on these defence mechanisms, Sarah now has difficulty building healthy relationships, and struggles with trust and intimacy. This is an example of how long-term use without intervention and therapy can be detrimental to self-esteem, well-being, and interpersonal relationships.

Theoretical underpinnings

The use of defence mechanisms as strategies for emotion regulation under stress can be understood through several psychological theories, from classical psychoanalysis to contemporary integrative and attachment-based theories. These theories conceptualise defence mechanisms as implicit emotion regulations processes to protect the self from distress (Cramer, 2015; Perry 2013; Vaillant, 1992). Theorists such as Freud and Anna Freud describe defences as operations of the ego, whereas later perspectives from Vaillant have identified them as developmental, adaptive strategies.

Psychoanalytic theory

Figure 6. Sigmund Freud, 1923

Freud's (1923) (see Figure 6) psychoanalytic theory provides the foundational framework for understanding defence mechanisms as unconscious strategies deployed by the ego to manage internal conflict. According to Freud, human behaviour is driven by interactions among three components of personality; the if, ego, and superego. The id represents instinctual drives and desires, the superego embodies moral standards and social norms, and the ego mediates between the id and superego with reality. When individuals experience stress, the ego activates defences such as repression or denial to protect self-esteem and reduce stress (Cramer, 2015; Freud, 1923). An example of this is an individual experiencing stress from their job, and as a result take their emotions out onto another to preserve their self-worth through externalising blame (see Case Study 1). Freud viewed these unconscious processes as universal to psychological functioning, and highlighted concerns on the sustained reliance on immature defences, potentially inhibiting emotional growth and further maladaptive coping strategies (Vaillant, 1992). Contemporary interpretations place these defences on a continuum from immature to mature emotion regulation, linking Freud's classical psychoanalysis with more recent theories (Gross, 2015). This adapts Freud's defences as not only ego protective strategies but the development of adaptive and maladaptive coping that develops across the life span.

Ego psychology

Building upon Freud's model, Anna Freud's (1937) ego psychology emphasises the ego's role in managing stress (A. Freud, 1937). Defence mechanisms were classified in accordance to their developmental maturity, suggesting that early life experiences shape the level of maturity of an individuals defensive functioning. Empirical research supports this view, suggesting that children tend to use primitive defences such as denial and splitting, whereas adults demonstrate more mature defences such as rationalisation and sublimation (Cramer, 2015; Perry 2013). An example of this is a child retreating into fantasy to escape distress from parental conflict (see Case Study 3), whereas an adult may sublimate frustration into productive activities. Vaillant (1992) refined Anna Freud's classifications into three levels; immature, neurotic, and mature, each reflective of the level of sophistication in emotion regulation. Individuals who predominantly use mature defences such as humour or altruism, typically display greater psychological resilience and wellbeing while under stress (Di Giuseppe et al., 2021; Polizzi et al., 2021) . However, ego psychology has been criticised for lacking empirical measures through the development of validated scales like the defence mechanism rating scales (Perry, 2013).

Attachment theory

The Theory of Attachment developed by Bowlby (1977) provides relational context for understanding how defence mechanisms regulate emotions under stress. Bowlby proposed that early caregiving experiences shape internal working models for self and others, influencing attachment style and defensive responses to threat. Attachment theory is broken down into four styles; anxious-preoccupied, dismissive-avoidant, secure, and fearful-avoidant, which influence defences in different ways (Bowlby, 1977). For example, individuals with an avoidant attachment often rely on defences such as repression or suppression to down regulate their distress, whereas those with an anxious based attachment may employ displacement or projection with amplifies their overall emotional experience. Concepts of attachment theory compliment Vaillant's continuum of defences. Empirical evidence links those with insecure attachments such as avoidant or anxious to greater reliance on immature defences and poor emotion regulation (Ciocca et al., 2020). Additionally, secure attachment fosters mature defences through supporting adaptive regulation and psychological resilience under stress. Attachment based interventions are also adapted in clinical settings, where they can facilitate the transition from maladaptive defences to adaptive defence strategies through corrective experiences (Bernstein, 1986; Ciocca et al., 2020; Cramer, 2015).

Attachment style in childhood has no influence on the development of defence mechanisms across the lifespan. True False

Humanistic approach

Figure 7. Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

The humanistic approach, informed by Goldstein's self-actualisation theory and integrated through Maslow's hierarchy of needs, and Rogers' client-centred therapy, views defences as barriers to self-growth. This perspective explains defences as unconscious responses to protecting one's self-concept when experiencing congruence between self and reality (Healy, 2016). An example is an individual who values independence and denies feelings of dependancy when ill to maintain consistency. Maslow proposed that unmet psychological needs trigger defence mechanisms to preserve sense of safety and and self-worth (see Figure 7), while Rogers argued that incongruence between self-image and reality illicit distress and defensive denial (Cramer, 2000). Although humanistic approach is less empirically systematised than psychoanalytic or attachment models, its perspective on defences as self-protective strategies when needs are unmet offer understanding to how they can inhibit or promote self growth and support transition through the different stages of maturity (Oswald, 1963).

Conclusion

Psychological defence mechanisms reveal how the mind protects itself under stress, using unconscious strategies to regulate emotions and maintain stability. From immature strategies like denial and projection, to mature ones such as humour and sublimation, these mechanisms reflect a spectrum of adaptiveness shaped by development, attachment, and life experiences. Theories including psychoanalysis, ego psychology, attachment and humanistic approaches offer insight into why and how these defences operate, highlighting both their short term benefits and potential long term consequences. Recognising and understanding one's natural defences allows individuals to build resilience, improve emotion regulation, and support personal growth, demonstrating the mind's capacity to adapt to distress while revealing opportunities for self-awareness and development.

See also

• Stress and psychological wellbeing (Book chapter, 2025)
• Humour and stress relief (Book chapter, 2024)
• Guided meditation and emotion regulation (Book chapter, 2023)
• Coping (Wikipedia)
• Defence mechanism (Wikipedia)

References

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Bowlby, J. (1977). The making and breaking of affectional bonds. II. Some principles of psychotherapy. The fiftieth maudsley lecture. British Journal of Psychiatry, 130(5), 421–431. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.130.5.421

Ciocca, G., Rossi, R., Collazzoni, A., Gorea, F., Vallaj, B., Stratta, P., Longo, L., Limoncin, E., Mollaioli, D., Gibertoni, D., Santarnecchi, E., Pacitti, F., Niolu, C., Siracusano, A., Jannini, E. A., & Di Lorenzo, G. (2020). The impact of attachment styles and defense mechanisms on psychological distress in a non-clinical young adult sample: A path analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 273, 384–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.05.014

Cramer, P. (2000). Defense mechanisms in psychology today. Further processes for adaptation. The American Psychologist, 55(6), 637. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.55.6.637

Cramer, P. (2015). Understanding defense mechanisms. Psychodynamic Psychiatry, 43(4), 523–552. https://doi.org/10.1521/pdps.2015.43.4.523

Di Giuseppe, M., & Perry, J. C. (2021). The hierarchy of defense mechanisms: assessing defensive functioning with the defense mechanisms rating scales q-sort. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 718440. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.718440

Ferrajão, P., Batista, C. I., Rocha, R., et al. (2024). Coping styles and defense mechanisms mediate associations between exposure to adverse childhood experiences and CPTSD symptoms in faroese adolescents. Scandinavian Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychology, 12(1), 33–46. https://doi.org/10.2478/sjcapp-2024-0004

Freud, A. (1936/1993). The ego and the mechanisms of defence. Karnac Books.

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Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: current status and future prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Healy, K. (2016). A theory of human motivation by Abraham H. Maslow (1942). British Journal of Psychiatry, 208(4), 313–313. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.115.179622

Oswald, I. (1963). Insight Books. New York: D. Van Nostrand Co. Inc. - No. 5. Toward a psychology of being. By Abraham H. Maslow - No. 6. Measuring human motivation. Edited by R. C. Birney and R. C. Teevan - No. 7. Emotion: bodily change. Edited by D. K. Candland - No. 8. Programmed learning: theory and research. Edited by W. I. Smith and J. W. Moore. British Journal of Psychiatry, 109(463), 841–841. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.109.463.841

Perry, J. C., Presniak, M. D., & Olson, T. R. (2013). Defense mechanisms in schizotypal, borderline, antisocial, and narcissistic personality disorders. Psychiatry (Washington, D.C.), 76(1), 32–52. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.2013.76.1.32

Polizzi, C. P., & Lynn, S. J. (2021). Regulating Emotionality to Manage Adversity: A Systematic Review of the Relation Between Emotion Regulation and Psychological Resilience. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 45(4), 577–597. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-020-10186-1

Porges, S. W. (1995). Orienting in a defensive world: mammalian modifications of our evolutionary heritage. A polyvagal theory. Psychophysiology, 32(4), 301–318. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.1995.tb01213.x

Seo, D., Rabinowitz, A. G., Douglas, R. J., & Sinha, R. (2019). Limbic response to stress linking life trauma and hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis function. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 99, 190–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.08.023

Vaillant, G. E. (1994). Ego mechanisms of defence and personality psychopathology. National Library of Medicine, 103(1), 44-50. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843x.103.1.44

External links

• Crash course psychology #21 (Youtube)
• Understanding defence mechanisms (Youtube)
• Repression in psychology (Verywell Mind)
• The ego and the id (Freud, 1923).
• Mature vs primitive defence mechanisms (Verywell Mind)