Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cultural differences in grief

Cultural differences in grief:
How does culture impact grief?

Overview

Figure 1. A family mourns during a funeral Scenario Imagine your friend is grieving the loss of a close family friend. You understand that part of their Chinese culture they wear white, plain clothes to the funeral service. This is not something you would do as, according to your western culture, black clothes are worn when mourning. How and why do your differences in cultural background impact the way you each grieve and bereave?

Culture impacts a person and their relationship to others, both within and outside of their culture. Attempting to find a single definition of culture that can encapsulate the overarching impact it has on societies and humanity at large, whilst still acknowledging the nuances of the construct, is an issue that professionals continue to deliberate (Roy, 2020). However, a definition of culture is that it both influences and creates the norms, knowledge, practices, laws, and customs of a specific social group.

Grief is an intense, sorrowful emotional reaction to the loss of something significant. This loss can be in a wide variety of forms but is typically applicable to close personal relationship such as friends, family, and pets. Throughout this chapter, grief will primarily refer to the death of a person who holds emotional significance. It should be noted that the key terms associated with grief and the differences. Bereavement concerns the period of time in which a person grieves. Typically, immediately, if not shortly, after the significant person has passed. During this time of bereavement, a person may mourn their loss, which includes behavioural expressions of grief through customs and traditions that are typical to that individual's culture.

Given the extent to which culture impact the way people both behave and interact, the relationship it holds in influencing said behaviours and interactions in situations of grief is an area that holds meaningful and influential impacts for the psychological landscape. At a time of such emotional distraught, someone's culture can provide some sense of direction in how to navigate bereavement and mourning. The political, social, religious, economic, and historical aspects that culminate into a sense of culture can shape and predict how different cultures respond to death and the grief that accompanies it (Silverman et al., 2021).

Focus questions What is grief? What makes cultures different? How does grief vary across cultures? Why is this topic important?

What is grief?

The emotional experience of grief when losing someone or something important is universal throughout all cultures. This is evident when examining both past and present expressions such as art, literature, storytelling, etc. It is therefore understandable that research has endeavoured to better understand the symptomatology of this human experience, as well as develop comprehensive models to breakdown the emotional processing involved.

Symptoms of grief

Although the social context, behaviours, and traditions associated with processing death is different for each culture, there are common symptoms that can be found throughout all cultures and are considered the innate human reactions. It should be noted, however, that it is not a guarantee that any one individual will exhibit all signs of grief. Physical symptoms of grief include restlessness, fatigue and exhaustion, appetite changes (increase or decrease), pains such as stabbing or aching sensation, and weakened immune system (Pearce & Komaromy, 2022). The characteristics and intensity of grief vary greatly from person to person. Factors like the nature of loss (e.g., accidents, homicides, suicides), closeness to the person who died (death of a partner typically more reactive than a past neighbour) impact the grieving process.

Types of grief

Depending on the intensity of the grief, the bereaved can often experience depression-like symptoms. According to Hilberdink et al. (2023), there are three severities of these reactions (see Table 1).

Table 1. Types of grief according to Hilberdink et al. (2023)

Type of grief	Symptoms	Progression
Acute grief	Intense longing for deceased, social withdrawal, loss of interest in life.	Functional impairment typically subsides after 2-3 months.
Integrated	Acknowledgement of the death, awareness of positive and negative cognitions surrounding death, regained interest in life, and social reintegration.	Successful adaption to life without deceased following acute grieving period.
Prolonged	Continued impairment from the symptoms of grief	Can last years or decades.

Persistent Grief Disorder (PGD)

In the 2022 revision of the text, prolonged grief disorder was added to the Fifth Edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Although there are intense but normal feelings of sadness and depression when grieving, a suggested 5-15% of bereaved will not progress to the stage of integrated grief but will instead experience sustained pathological and symptomatic impairment of grief.

Models of grief

The five stages of grief

Perhaps the most prolific model of grief is that developed by Kübler-Ross in 1969, the five stages of grief (also known as the Kübler-Ross grief cycle). Originally devised to understand the experience of those with a terminal illness and how the concept of their own mortality is digested, it was later broadened to include the experience of those losing a significant person. According to this model, an individual experiences five distinct stages after the initial shock of another's death. It was proposed that a person progresses through the following stages sequentially; denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. See Table 2 for a comprehensive descriptor of each stage.

Table 2. Stages of grief according to Kübler-Ross model

	Stage of Grief	Associated behaviours
1.	Denial	Rejecting the reality of the death. Feelings of numbness and behaviours such as continuing as if nothing had changed and avoiding acknowledgement of death.
2.	Anger	Feelings of unjust treatment. Can be directed at others, ourselves, or, if spiritual, religious deities.
3.	Bargaining	Driven by a feeling of powerlessness. It involves attempting to reconcile the death by examining what could have changed. Can involve bartering with religious gods for the return of the deceased.
4.	Depression	Extreme feelings of sadness, occupation with loss of significant figure.
5.	Acceptance	Awareness and acknowledgement of the finality of the death.

Despite the popularity of this model, modern psychological research of grief strongly discounts its validity with many researchers discarding its use (Daniel, 2025). The strongest criticism is the lack of sufficient evidence for the model. The wording of "stages" suggests innate and sequential phases which the bereaved must go through. However, many professionals have highlighted that grieving is rarely such a straightforward process and that the model lacks ecological validity (Stroebe et al., 2017). Additionally, this model is firmly planted in western psychology with little cross-cultural investigation considered in its formation. In an article by Corr (2015), the author expresses concern in too much emphasis of this stage journey as it has the potential to invalidate those who do not progress through the stages as proposed by Kübler-Ross and discredit their own method of grieving. This could further upset an individual already in an emotionally vulnerable position when grieving. The simplicity of the model may have provided a strength in its acceptance into layperson psychology, but it also failed to capture the complexities and nuances of the grieving, as well as the influence of context (Silverman et al., 2021).

Figure 2. Dual-process model of grief

Dual-process model of grief

The dual-process model of grief was developed by Stroebe and Schut (1999). The researchers endeavoured to create a more realistic model of the bereavement experience by emphasising the oscillation between different coping styles. Loss-orientated and restoration-orientated both involve negative and positive associations . Important that an individual balances both types of orientations to allow sufficient processing of grief.

A limitation of previous models of grief and bereavement that Stroebe and Schut was the rigidity and lack of ecological validity in the models. This model addresses that by presenting grief as a continual process with no obvious or "correct" progression.

It should be noted that, as such with the psychological science, there are many theories/models of grief. Further research can be done on Worden's four tasks of mourning, Rando's six "R" processes of mourning, and Bowlby's four phases of grief.

1

The five stages of grief model lacks empirical support:

	True
	False

2

There is a specific length of time that every person bereaves for after learning about a death:

	True
	False

What makes cultures different?

Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory

Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory is a framework that has been highly praised in cross-cultural psychology for it being one of the first to comprehensively capture more diverse and relevant dimensions of culture. According to this theory, there are six psycho-social factors that define a culture. These include power distance, uncertainty avoidance, femininity vs masculinity, short-term vs long-term orientation, restraint vs indulgence, and individualistic vs collective (Beugelsdijk, & Welzel, 2018). See Table 3 for a description of each dimension. A part of this theory that has gained significant recognition is the individualism vs collectivism dimension. This measurement is able to account for a considerable portion of cultural differences and is therefore, a useful tool when examining fundamental differences in cultural behaviours and attitudes, such as those during bereavement.

Table 3. Hofstede's cultural dimensions for cross-cultural psychology

Cultural dimension	Description
Power distance	The degree to which the culture will accept (close) or reject (distant) the power held by authority figures. High power distant cultures are more accepting of hierarchical structures and decision-making at authority levels. Low power distant cultures expect a more communicative and collaborative approach from authority figures.
Uncertainty avoidance	Describes how comfortable the culture is with uncertainty, change, ambiguity, and the unknown. Reflects attitudes of acceptance to go against the status quo or develop new cultural ideas.
Femininity vs masculinity	This dimension relies heavily on stereotypical beliefs of masculine and feminine qualities. Masculinity refers to a culture that prioritises practical achievement, competition and success. Femininity refers to a culture that is more socially orientated and prioritises social harmony, cooperation and care.
Short vs long term orientation	Refers to a cultures beliefs around enacting effort for present goals or for future goals. Effects a culture's orientation towards future development and security and the willingness to delay gratification in accordance to more long-term goals. Short-term orientation refers to a mentality that emphasises gratification at the present moment for effort. Long-term orientation thinking is associated with planning and persistence.
Restraint vs indulgence	This dimensions revolves around the acceptance of the celebration, enjoyment, and indulgence of pleasure in life. It influences the degree to which cultural norms inhibits/encourages emotional expression and adherence of strict control.
Individualism vs collectivism	Extent to which people view and prioritise their autonomous, separate selves (individualism) or if they place greater emphasis on the "greater whole" and operating in a community (collectivism).

How does grief vary across cultures?

Within the framework Hofstede's cultural dimension model there are a significant amount of combined variable formations, each one producing unique and nuanced cultures. The dimensions operationalise impactful components of culture such as mindset, expectations, autonomy, and adaptability. These components (and more) dictate and compromise the basis through which social norms and interactions operate. Recognising the differences in cultural dimensions is valuable tool to allow a larger assessment of the different norms, traditions and practices. Many of these differences can be largely explained by the measure of the individualism vs collectivism cultural dimension in Hofstede's theory.

Understanding differences in grief manifestations can be done by researching the mourning rituals such as funerals, wakes, ceremonies and religious services. Research by Zhou et al. (2023) investigated cultural differences in grieving between Swiss (individualistic) and Chinese (collectivist) cultures. The study examined 86 Swiss bereaved people 99 Chinese bereaved people.

Individualistic cultures

Zhou et al. (2023) found that members from individualistic societies were more likely to endorse open displays of grief-related emotions, such as sadness or anger, reflecting cultural values that encourage self-expression and personal autonomy. In the Swiss context, rooted in individualistic traditions, participants endorsed more Template:In open displays of grief-related emotions such as sadness and anger, reflecting the cultural priority of authenticity and personal coping. These emotional display behaviours were seen as aligning with the belief that expressing one’s inner state is important for psychological well-being and social authenticity. These emotional display behaviours were seen as aligning with the belief that expressing one’s inner state is important for psychological well-being and social authenticity. The individualistic cultural framework supports bereaved individuals in communicating their grief outwardly as a way of processing loss and affirming personal identity. Thus, grief in individualistic cultures is closely tied to ideals of openness, individuality, and emotional honesty.

Figure 2. A Hindu funeral procession in India in the 1880s

Collectivist cultures

In collectivistic cultures, grieving is shaped by values of social harmony, interdependence, and relational responsibility, which often result in more restrained emotional expression. Zhou et al. (2023) found that individuals in collectivistic societies were more likely to regulate or suppress grief-related displays in order to avoid burdening others and to maintain group cohesion. Within situated the collectivistic framework of Chinese culture, it was reported there is greater regulation and suppression of grief displays, with restraint serving to protect family dignity and maintain social harmony. Rather than prioritising personal authenticity, emotional display rules in these contexts emphasised appropriateness, situational sensitivity, and consideration of the collective. Grief was therefore less about individual expression and more about fulfilling social obligations, protecting family dignity, and ensuring that emotions did not disrupt the broader community. This approach highlights how collectivistic cultures frame grieving as a shared social process in which self-restraint and relational attunement are seen as signs of respect and maturity.

Why is this topic important?

As mentioned previously, grief is strong emotional response that is likely to effect any one person over the span of their life. Grief can cause significant emotional pain and is expected to have short-term impact on the individual's day-to-day and, depending on the intensity, may require sustained support and counsel from friends, family, and professionals.

Psychological science and research can assist in curating a more informed and valid approach to cross-cultural grief work in these professional and personal fields. Having greater awareness of cultural differences can increase diversity awareness and sensitivity, creating more empathetic, responsible and effective healthcare professionals (Aeschlimann et al., 2024). This is especially relevant to the psychotherapy field, where clients can potentially share emotional and practical difficulties surrounding bereavement which, considering the strong emotional function of grief, is an reasonable expectation for the therapy. Furthermore, greater cultural sensitivity surrounding emotionally vulnerable experience such as grief, can allow for increased social awareness and improve relationships in personal and communal lives. Psychological science can assist this by gathering by conducting interviews, surveys, and observational studies of different cultures and their process of grieving and bereaving.

Conclusion

Grief is a universal human experience, yet the way it is expressed and managed is deeply shaped by cultural values, traditions, and norms. Grief is a sorrowful emotion that can manifest in symptoms and behaviours such as fatigue, social withdrawal, appetite change and loss of interest in life. Hofstede's cultural dimensions model is an empirically supported tool to conduct cross-psychological research. The most often cited dimension from this theory is individualism vs collectivism. By merging general knowledge of the practices, norms, and reactions of grief with this dimension, a greater understanding of cultural differences during bereavement can be had. While individualistic cultures, such as Switzerland, often encourage open emotional expression as a form of authenticity and personal coping, collectivistic cultures, such as China, emphasise emotional restraint to preserve harmony, respect, and family dignity. Recognising these differences holds significant implications for psychology and allied disciplines, particularly in the development of culturally sensitive models of grief and bereavement support. Greater cross-cultural awareness not only enriches theoretical understandings of grief but also enhances the capacity of practitioners to provide appropriate and empathetic care. In this way, culture serves as both a lens through which grief is experienced and a framework that determines the pathways through which adaptation and healing can occur.

See also

• Grief (Book chapter, 2021)
• Hofstede's dimensions of cultural value and motivation (Book chapter, 2013)
• Culture (Wikipedia)
• Grief (Wikipedia)
• Mourning (Wikipedia)

References

Aeschlimann, A., Heim, E., Killikelly, C., Arafa, M., & Maercker, A. (2024). Culturally sensitive grief treatment and support: A scoping review. SSM - Mental Health, 5, Article 100325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100325

Árnason, A. (2007). “Fall apart and put yourself together again”: the anthropology of death and bereavement counselling in Britain. Mortality, 12(1), 48–65. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/13576270601088335

Bandini, J. (2015). The Medicalization of Bereavement: (Ab)normal Grief in the DSM-5. Death Studies, 39(6), 347–352. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/07481187.2014.951498

Beugelsdijk, S., & Welzel, C. (2018). Dimensions and Dynamics of National Culture: Synthesizing Hofstede With Inglehart. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 49(10), 1469–1505. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022118798505

Corr, C. A. (2015). Let’s Stop “Staging” Persons Who Are Coping With Loss. Illness, Crisis & Loss, 23(3), 226-241. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1177/1054137315585423 (Original work published 2015)

Daniel, T. (2025). The Stubborn Persistence of Grief Stage Theory. Omega: Journal of Death & Dying, 91(3), 1140–1154. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1177/00302228221149801

Dulberg, Z., Dubey, R., & Cohen, J. D. (2025). Adapting to loss: A computational model of grief. Psychological Review. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/rev0000567

Hilberdink, C. E., Ghainder, K., Dubanchet, A., Hinton, D., Djelantik, A. A. A. M. J., Hall, B. J., & Bui, E. (2023). Bereavement issues and prolonged grief disorder: A global perspective. Cambridge Prisms: Global Mental Health, 10, e32. https://doi:10.1017/gmh.2023.28

Pearce, C., & Komaromy, C. (2022). Recovering the body in grief: Physical absence and embodied presence. Health (London, England : 1997), 26(4), Article 1363459320931914. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363459320931914

Roy, D. (2020). Formulation of Hofstede’s Global Cultural Dimension Index (HGCDI): A cross-country study. Journal of Transnational Management, 25(3), 195–224. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/15475778.2020.176571

Shimkhada, D. Death: Never Done Grieving. DHARM 6, 195–205 (2023). https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1007/s42240-023-00156-7

Sigelman, C., George, L. d., & Cunial, K. (2018). Life Span Human Development. Cengage. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/canberra/detail.action?docID=5723228

Silverman, G. S., Baroiller, A., & Hemer, S. R. (2021). Culture and grief: Ethnographic perspectives on ritual, relationships and remembering. Death Studies, 45(1), 1–8. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/07481187.2020.1851885

Stroebe, M., Schut, H., & Boerner, K. (2017). Cautioning Health-Care Professionals. Omega (Westport), 74(4), 455-473. https://doi.org/10.1177/0030222817691870

Stroebe, M., & Schut, H. (1999). The dual process model of coping with bereavement: rationale and description. Death Studies, 23(3), 197-224. https://research.ebsco.com/linkprocessor/plink?id=f329978a-45ff-30c8-8ffb-7ff9f44f5a93

Szuhany, K. L., Malgaroli, M., Miron, C. D., & Simon, N. M. (2021). Prolonged Grief Disorder: Course, Diagnosis, Assessment, and Treatment. Focus, 19(2), 161-172. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.focus.20200052

Xu, X., Wen, J., Qian, W., Zhou, N., & Jiang, W. (2024). Living with grief and thriving after loss: a qualitative study of Chinese parents whose only child has died. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2024.2418767

Żemojtel-Piotrowska, M., & Piotrowski, J. (2023). Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory. In Encyclopedia of sexual psychology and behavior (pp. 1-4). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08956-5_1124-1

Zhou, N., Smith, K. V., Stelzer, E., Maercker, A., Xi, J., & Killikelly, C. (2023). How the bereaved behave: a cross-cultural study of emotional display behaviours and rules. Cognition and Emotion, 37(5), 1023–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2023.2219046

External links

• About Grief (Grief Australia)
• Before the Five Stages: Bowlby's FOUR Stages of Grief (What's your grief?)
• How does grief affect your body? (UCLA Health)
• Rando's Six R Processes of Mourning (What's your grief?)
• What is grief? (Cancer Council)
• What is grief? Types, symptoms & How To Cope (Cleveland Clinic)
• Worden's Four Tasks of Mourning (What's your grief?)