Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cortical structures and motivational drive

Cortical structures and motivational drive:
How do cortical regions modulate motivational impulses and energy?

Overview

Case study 1

Meet Jasmine (see Figure 1), a high-achieving academic university student who suddenly finds herself unable to stay motivated. She has lost her desire, energy and enthusiasm for her academic studies despite knowing the importance of her goals. She usually loves her studies; however, she is procrastinating, avoids tasks, can't "will" herself to act and just feels depleted all the time. Psychotherapy has displayed no major depression, but neuroimaging later revealed that her prefrontal cortex is under-active.

The case raises a serious question whether motivation derives purely from desires and willpower, or is it overseen by the brain's control systems. Motivation can be understood as the internal drive that allows an individual to begin, guide, and maintain actions directed towards specific goals (Graham & Weiner, 2012). Psychologically [grammar?] motivation is found within an individuals[grammar?] thoughts, emotions and involves belief's about one's capabilities. However, motivation is also physiological; research has shown that motivation is deeply linked to our cortical structures within the brain (Rolls, 2023). Specifically, the prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and the insular cortex. They are involved in goal-directed behaviour, monitoring performance, and emotional awareness (Rolls, 2023). Therefore, understanding and challenging the common idea that motivation or lack of is due to psychological reasons and instead focusing on the dysregulation of the cortical structures, will greatly benefit academic performance, athletic ability and professionalism in the workplace.

Focus questions

Which cortical structures are involved in generating and sustaining motivation?
How do psychological theories explain cortical involvement in motivation?
How do cortical systems interact in regulating effort?
How can interpreting cortical systems improve motivation in real-world settings?

Key cortical structures involved in motivation

Considering the impacts that cortical structures have on motivation have allowed teachers, practitioners, and coaches to determine why learning, reward value, decision-making, and executive function relate, guide and energise motivation (Kim, 2013)[improve clarity]. Research has identified that sustaining motivation falls largely on the striatum and the orbitofrontal cortex, as they evaluate stimuli (Kim, 2013). While control over goal-directed behaviour comes from the anterior cingulate cortex an area that regulates attention, and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, an area that regulates cognitive control (Kim, 2013)[grammar?]. However, while a few structures are named more frequently in motivation research, the full impact of different cortical structures still continues to be explored in literature and several implications have been revealed from research (Kim, 2013).

Prefrontal cortex

Located at the front of brain (see Figure 2), the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is central to complex cognitive operations, including planning, reasoning, decision-making, regulating social behaviour, and exercising self-control (Harms & Pollak, 2024). Thus, damage to the pre-frontal cortex can lead to inefficiency in socio-emotional regulation, incorrect evaluation of individuals moods around them, and importantly, planning, goal-attainment and problem-solving become impaired (Harms & Pollak, 2024). A simplified review of PFC structures involvement in motivation can be seen in Table 1.

Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), located in the upper to middle regions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC; see Figure 3), has been identified as a major driver of motivation. Functional MRI (fMRI) has allowed researchers to examine more closely the relationship between goal-directed behaviour and the DLPFC in order to explain the neural basis of reward-driven behaviour (Ballard et al., 2011). Evidence indicates that the DLPFC is an important structure for receiving input from the dopamine system, guiding reward information from simple reaction-time tasks to long-term goals (Ballard et al., 2011). Research also suggests that the DLPFC plays a critical role in weighting the benefits of pursuing goals. Activation of the DLPFC enhances the representation of reward cues, integrating and transmitting this information to the mesolimbic and mesocortical dopamine systems and thereby initiating motivation (Ballard et al., 2011). Additionally, under-activity of the DLPFC has been associated with amotivation, a core feature of major depressive disorder (MDD) (Bi et al., 2024). The DLPFC is therefore central in modulating effortful motivation. Studies have shown that stimulation of the DLPFC increases willingness to engage in reward-seeking behaviour (Bi et al., 2024). Specifically, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of the DLPFC enhances motivational attention, highlighting its potential as a therapeutic intervention for improving motivational energy and providing potential treatment for MDD (Bi et al., 2024).

Ventromedial prefrontal cortex

The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) is located in the posterior middle region of the prefrontal cortex (see Figure 3) and plays a key role in regulating reward-driven arousal during activity preparation to enhance motivation (Watanabe et al., 2019). The vmPFC supports motivational drive and task performance by controlling excessive arousal that arises during the preparation of challenging tasks, when the likelihood of reward increases (Watanabe et al., 2019). Without regulation, this heightened arousal can lead to irrational and unstable behaviour, ultimately impairing performance. However, through its neural connection with the amygdala, the vmPFC helps stabilise arousal responses and supports successful performance (Watanabe et al., 2019). Similarly, research demonstrated that during decision-making, blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) signals in the vmPFC have been shown to correlate with both expected values and reward or cost incentives, key factors that drive motivation (Hoven et al., 2022).

Orbitofrontal cortex

The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) [grammar?] found on the underside of the PFC (see Figure 3), regulates motivation by evaluating rewards and punishments (Morecraft & Yeterian, 2002). Evidence suggests that the OFC drives goal-directed behaviour through the pursuit of rewards and the avoidance of punishments (Rolls, 2023). fMRI studies support this view, showing that the medial OFC becomes active when a reward is present, motivating individuals to continue the behaviour (Kringelbach & Rolls, 2004). Conversely, the lateral OFC activates in response to potential punishments, prompting behavioural change to avoid negative outcomes (Kringelbach & Rolls, 2004). Dysregulation of the OFC has been linked to depression, as the loss of an expected reward can trigger sadness and depressive symptoms (Rolls et al., 2020). In such cases, the OFC shows decreased functional connectivity, particularly under-responsiveness to reward stimulation in the medial OFC (Rolls et al., 2020). Treatments aimed at reducing depression and enhancing goal-directed behaviour, therefore, focus on decreasing lateral OFC connectivity while increasing medial OFC connectivity through stimulation (Rolls et al., 2020).

Table 1.

Key structures within the prefrontal cortex and their motivational drive function.

Region within the PFC	Role in Motivation
DLPFC	Initiates and guides reward driven behaviour to achieve long-term goals by transmitting input to the mesolimbic and mesocorticlal[spelling?] dopamine system.
vmPFC	Controls excessive arousal that causes irrationally and thereby supporting motivation by controlling impulses that would harm the performance of a particular action or task.
OFC	Regulates and sustains adaptive motivation by weighing the cost or benefit of a reward or punishment.

Anterior cingulate cortex

The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), located on the medial surface of the frontal lobe, is responsible for enacting inhibitory control during behaviour, namely, the ability to regulate or suppress potentially regretful actions (Alexander, 2020). Research suggests that the ACC facilitates the successful completion of hierarchical behaviours by grouping lower-level actions and completing them in accordance with superordinate goals, which are encoded within ACC neural ensembles (Foinikianaki et al., 2025). In this way, the ACC exerts inhibitory control over behaviour through the evaluation of reward predictions at the onset of hierarchical tasks (Foinikianaki et al., 2025). Evidence further indicates that ACC activity is positively associated with task performance, reflected in greater accuracy and faster response times (Foinikianaki et al., 2025). Moreover, the ACC monitors motivation by evaluating reward contingencies, thereby guiding control over goal-directed behaviour (Foinikianaki et al., 2025).

Insular cortex

The insular cortex is located deep within the lateral sulcus (see Figure 4), which separates the temporal lobe from the frontal and parietal lobes (Gogollo, 2017). It is active in all motivational behaviours and is implicated in risk prediction, self-awareness, decision-making, and motivation (Gogollo, 2017). Evidence suggests that the insular cortex functions as a linking network between cortical and subcortical structures, with strong connections to motivation and reward systems (Gogollo, 2017). The insular cortex also contributes to the brain mapping of bodily states necessary for upholding homeostasis. Interoception occurs and is integrated with motivational signals to initiate behaviour (Namkung et al., 2017). It plays a role in explicit motivation by driving engagement in behaviours that fulfil conscious desires (Namkung et al., 2017). Rewarding stimuli are therefore associated with feelings of joy, which increase the motivational drive to participate in rewarding behaviours. Conversely, aversive stimuli generate feelings of discomfort, leading to avoidance motivation and decreasing behaviour (Namkung et al., 2017).

Theoretical underpinning

Theories involving motivation propose and inform why individuals make a certain decision, or why behaviour consists[say what?] over time. New concepts have been developed with four major factors being identified:

expectations
social modelling
self-regulation
task value, goal-directed behaviour, and perceived costs or rewards (Hattie et al., 2020).

Dual-process theory

The dual-process theory encompasses two systems that are distinct yet interconnected. System 1, often referred to as the automatic or “gut feeling” system, prepares an individual’s initial reaction to stimuli. It is fast, unconscious, and intuitive (Da Silva, 2023). In contrast, system 2 is the controlled or “thinking” system, responsible for adaptable reasoning and deliberate decision-making. Therefore, it operates consciously and system 2 can override the automatic responses generated by system 1 (Da Silva, 2023)[grammar?].

Meta-analyses using fMRI research support this distinction, showing that different neural activations occur depending on the type of reasoning required. Specifically, the left PFC has been identified as essential for general reasoning ability (Da Silva, 2023). Further evidence suggests that during system 2 processing, the right inferior PFC is activated when logically correct decisions are made, supporting analytical thinking. Conversely, the vmPFC is engaged during system 1 processing, guiding intuitive and heuristic judgments when beliefs override logic (Da Silva, 2023).

Case study 2

Mia, who has recently been employed and works at a zoo, is shocked by the idea that not all birds can fly. Therefore, her vmPFC during system 2 has activated and she is relying on her personal understanding of animals. However, her belief is incorrect and has suppressed her logical reasoning, leading her to reject the conclusion that not all birds can fly.

Reinforcement sensitivity theory

The reinforcement sensitivity theory proposes that motivational behaviour arises from three brain-based systems: the behavioural approach system (BAS), the behavioural inhibition system (BIS), and the fight-flight-freeze system (FFFS) (Xie, 2021). The BAS responds to rewards, the BIS to punishments and missed rewards, and the FFFS prepares the body to face threats (Xie, 2021). Neuroimaging research has shown that the medial OFC exhibits stronger activation when anticipated rewards are larger, reflecting BAS activation and supporting motivation (Xie, 2021). Conversely, the lateral OFC shows greater activation when rewards are smaller or absent, engaging the BIS and motivating behavioural inhibition (Xie, 2021).

Self-determination theory

The self-determination theory (SDT) posits that optimal human functioning requires the fulfilment and support of three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Reeve & Lee, 2019). When these needs are supported, individuals experience greater intrinsic motivation and more autonomous forms of extrinsic motivation (Reeve & Lee, 2019). fMRI research examining brain activity in response to situations involving these needs has identified motivational activation associated with each component of SDT (Reeve & Lee, 2019). For competence-satisfying challenges, the anterior insular in both hemispheres is activated, integrating emotional self-awareness into decision-making (Reeve & Lee, 2019). In autonomy-supportive situations, increased intrinsic motivation is linked to activation in both the anterior insular and the PFC, which integrate information from emotions, self-awareness, and personal meaning to stimulate the brain’s dopamine reward system and self-relatedness processes (Reeve & Lee, 2019). Finally, in relatedness-satisfying contexts, the ACC has been shown to enhance intrinsic motivation through its role in attachment and bonding. Since feelings of belonging are both rewarding and self-satisfying, they amplify motivational drive to complete the task (Reeve & Lee, 2019).

Cortical-motivational systems in real life contexts

Motivation is fundamental in behaviour and in the interaction that occurs between an individual and the world around them (Simpson & Balsam, 2016). Human's[grammar?] have basic motivational instincts to obtain food, water, shelter and social interactions, however, motivation is also crucial for optimal academic achievement, foster growth in the workplace, and importantly it explains the "why" behind behaviours, such as addiction (Simpson & Balsam, 2016).

Academic motivation

Procrastination is a growing issue in academic achievement, referring to the act of unnecessarily delaying a task or goal despite the awareness of potential negative consequences (Li et al., 2021). Previous research suggests that the likelihood of procrastination decreases as achievement motivation increases (Li et al., 2021). Achievement motivation is linked to academic success because it reflects the drive to succeed and the need to accomplish goals (Li et al., 2021). Studies have revealed that the DLPFC and ACC are key regions within the self-control network, connecting them with procrastination through their role in impulse regulation (Li et al., 2021). These regions regulate procrastination and enhance academic achievement by modulating an individual’s bias toward task outcomes (Li et al., 2021). This means that cortical structures place less emphasis on potential negative outcomes and more on positive ones during decision-making (Li et al., 2021). Consequently, this promotes study engagement, persistence, and discipline, ultimately leading to greater learning and higher academic results (Li et al., 2021).

Test yourself

Workplace motivation

Experiencing workplace motivation is crucial for career success. It drives individuals to grow, challenge themselves, and become more competitive in their work (Vo et al., 2022). Research has demonstrated that satisfying social relatedness and autonomy is associated with increased work motivation (Vo et al., 2022). However, satisfying competence can decrease motivation, as individuals may feel superior to their co-workers, leading to reduced effort (Vo et al., 2022). Additionally, having control over work activities enhances confidence and motivation, while support from colleagues further increases employees’ commitment and effort toward their organisation (Vo et al., 2022). During periods of strong work motivation, the anterior insular, PFC, and ACC show greater activation to support drive and concentration (Vo et al., 2022). Conversely, when these cortical regions are under-active, it can result in burnout (see Figure 5), stress, and feelings of inadequacy in the workplace, as the dopamine system becomes less responsive when rewards are insufficient (Vo et al., 2022).

Addiction

Research has also identified that when the PFC does not function optimally, individuals are at a greater risk of developing addiction (Goldstein & Volkow, 2011). Individuals with PFC dysfunction are more likely to become addicted to various stimuli, such as food or drugs (Goldstein & Volkow, 2011). Studies have shown that during drug use, the PFC becomes overactive, reflecting heightened craving for drugs (see Figure 6) (Goldstein & Volkow, 2011). Conversely, when not taking drugs or engaging in tasks that require decision-making, the PFC exhibits reduced activity (Goldstein & Volkow, 2011). This pattern of overactivation during drug use and underactivation during normal motivational tasks is associated with greater addiction severity and an increased likelihood of relapse (Goldstein & Volkow, 2011). Research has also shown that dysfunction in PFC regions such as the DLPFC, vmPFC, OFC, have resulted in impaired response inhibition and salience attribution (IRISA) in addiction behaviours (Goldstein & Volkow, 2011). These are the neurophysiological mechanisms that describe the development of impulsive behaviours cravings and impaired self awareness(Goldstein & Volkow, 2011).

Conclusion

The chapter discussed the importance of cortical regions and their role in motivation. The PFC is divided into the DLPFC, vmPFC, and the OFC. The DLPFC is responsible for reward driven behaviour, the vmPFC is responsible for controlling arousal, and the OFC is responsible for the cost and benefit analysis of rewards or punishments. The ACC and insular are also important cortical regions in motivation as they are involved in risk prediction and inhibitory control. Research has explained cortical region involvement in motivation through dual-process theory, reinforcement sensitivity theory, and the STD. The dual-process theory explains that motivation occurs from two intertwined systems known as system 1, the automatic system, and system 2, the controlled system. Reinforcement sensitivity theory suggests that motivation is regulated by three brain systems in reaction to rewards or punishments. Finally, the STD system demonstrates that optimal motivation arise from satisfying basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Furthermore, interpreting cortical systems improves motivation in real-world settings, because it informs teachers on how to create better engagement and reduce procrastination. It will enable employers to better motivate their employees through self-determination and supporting them to give them better confidence, and it will reduce addiction levels in society, because cortical regions explain why people are motivated to continue in addicting behaviours. Furthermore, this research demonstrates the crucial role of cortical regions in understanding and enhancing motivation, offering insights for performance, wellbeing, and behavioural improvements across all domains of life.

References

Alexander, W. H. (2020). The surprising role of anterior cingulate in motivated control. Research Communities by Springer Nature; Springer Nature. https://communities.springernature.com/posts/the-surprising-role-of-anterior-cingulate-in-motivated-control

Ballard, I. C., Murty, V. P., Carter, R. M., MacInnes, J. J., Huettel, S. A., & Adcock, R. A. (2011). Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Drives Mesolimbic Dopaminergic Regions to Initiate Motivated Behavior. The Journal of Neuroscience, 31(28), 10340–10346. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0895-11.2011

Bi, R., Zhao, Y., Li, S., Xu, F., Peng, W., Tan, S., & Zhang, D. (2024). Brain stimulation over the left DLPFC enhances motivation for effortful rewards in patients with major depressive disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 356, 414–423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.04.064

Da Silva, S. (2023). System 1 vs. System 2 Thinking. Psych, 5(4), 1057–1076. https://doi.org/10.3390/psych5040071

Foinikianaki, E., Ikink, I., Colin, T. R., Alejandro, R. J., & Holroyd, C. B. (2025). ACC representations of reward-driven motivation over hierarchically-organized behavior. NeuroImage (Orlando, Fla.), 317, Article 121380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2025.121380

Gogolla, N. (2017). The insular cortex. Current Biology, 27(12), R580–R586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.05.010

Goldstein, R. Z., & Volkow, N. D. (2011). Dysfunction of the prefrontal cortex in addiction: neuroimaging findings and clinical implications. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 12(11), 652–669. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3119

Graham, S., & Weiner, B. (2012). APA PsycNet. Psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-11701-013

Harms, M. B., & Pollak, S. D. (2024). Emotion regulation. ScienceDirect; Elsevier. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780323960236000361

Hattie, J., Hodis, F. A., & Kang, S. H. K. (2020). Theories of motivation: Integration and ways forward. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61(1), 101865. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101865

Hoven, M., Brunner, G., de Boer, N. S., Goudriaan, A. E., Denys, D., van Holst, R. J., Luigjes, J., & Lebreton, M. (2022). Motivational signals disrupt metacognitive signals in the human ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Communications Biology, 5(1), Article 244. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-022-03197-z

Kim, S. (2013). Neuroscientific Model of Motivational Process. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 98. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00098

Kringelbach, M. L., & Rolls, E. T. (2004). The functional neuroanatomy of the human orbitofrontal cortex: evidence from neuroimaging and neuropsychology. Progress in Neurobiology, 72(5), 341–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2004.03.006

Li, Y., Zhang, L., Zhang, R., Xu, T., & Feng, T. (2022). The Neural Basis Linking Achievement Motivation With Procrastination: Left Precuneus Connectivity With Right Anterior Cingulate Cortex. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 48(9), 1382–1392. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672211040677 Morecraft, R. J., & Yeterian, E. H. (2002). Prefrontal Cortex. Encyclopedia of the Human Brain, 11–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/b0-12-227210-2/00285-5

Namkung, H., Kim, S.-H., & Sawa, A. (2017). The Insula: An Underestimated Brain Area in Clinical Neuroscience, Psychiatry, and Neurology. Trends in Neurosciences (Regular Ed.), 40(4), 200–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2017.02.002

Reeve, J., & Lee, W. (2019). A neuroscientific perspective on basic psychological needs. Journal of Personality, 87(1), 102–114. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12390

Rolls, E. T. (2023). Emotion, motivation, decision-making, the orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and the amygdala. Brain Structure and Function, 228(5), 1201–1257. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-023-02644-9

Rolls, E. T., Cheng, W., & Feng, J. (2020). The orbitofrontal cortex: reward, emotion and depression. Brain Communications, 2(2), fcaa196. https://doi.org/10.1093/braincomms/fcaa196

Simpson, E. H., & Balsam, P. D. (2016). The Behavioral Neuroscience of Motivation: an Overview of Concepts, Measures, and Translational Applications. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, 27(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2015_402

Vo, T. T. D., Tuliao, K. V., & Chen, C.-W. (2022). Work Motivation: The Roles of Individual Needs and Social Conditions. Behavioral Sciences, 12(2), 49. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs12020049

Watanabe, N., Bhanji, J. P., Tanabe, H. C., & Delgado, M. R. (2019). Ventromedial prefrontal cortex contributes to performance success by controlling reward-driven arousal representation in amygdala. NeuroImage (Orlando, Fla.), 202, Article 116136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116136

Xie, C., Jia, T., Rolls, E. T., Robbins, T. W., Sahakian, B. J., Zhang, J., Liu, Z., Cheng, W., Luo, Q., Zac Lo, C.-Y., Wang, H., Banaschewski, T., Barker, G. J., Bokde, A. L. W., Büchel, C., Quinlan, E. B., Desrivières, S., Flor, H., Grigis, A., … Zhang, Y. (2021). Reward Versus Nonreward Sensitivity of the Medial Versus Lateral Orbitofrontal Cortex Relates to the Severity of Depressive Symptoms. Biological Psychiatry : Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 6(3), 259–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2020.08.017

External links

2-minute neuroscience: prefrontal cortex (YouTube)
Collection of articles on the prefrontal cortex (ScienceDirect)
Collection of articles on the function of the orbitofrontal cortex (ScienceDirect)
Meet your master - getting to know your brain (YouTube)