Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Coping with anticipatory stress
What strategies are effective for managing stress about upcoming events?
Overview
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You have an important work presentation in a week in front of your peers who you want to impress. You can't stop worrying about how you will perform on the day, so much so that you are experiencing heart palpitations. What can you do?
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People often experience anticipatory stress in relation to upcoming events, which can be uncomfortable and distressing. Psychological science provides evidence for different strategies to help cope with anticipatory stress that one could implement in their lives. Psychological science is also beginning to consider how anticipatory stress and therefore the effectiveness of coping strategies is different among individuals, and in the context of socioecological factors.
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What is anticipatory stress?
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Stress
[edit | edit source]As the term stress is broad, many theories distinguish between the stressor (cause of stress) and the stress response that is psychological and physiological. The cognitive activation theory of stress describes the stress response as neurophysiological activation/arousal in repose to homeostatic imbalance or threat, “when there is a discrepancy between what should be and what is” (Ursin & Erikson, 2004). The stress triggers behaviours for coping, making it adaptive. However, the perceived ability to cope also impacts the severity of the neurophysiological activation/arousal, so if this causes prolonged, heightened state of arousal, it can have adverse health effects, contributing to allostatic load (Ursin & Erikson, 2004).
Anticipatory stress
[edit | edit source]This understanding of stress is relevant in anticipatory stress. Neupert et al. (2018) proposes a framework with two types of anticipatory stress; stressor forecasting and stress anticipation. Stressor forecasting is the prediction that a stressful event (stressor) will happen in the future, while stress anticipation is the expectation to experience a level of stress arousal in the future (Neupert et al., 2018). Both lead to the anticipatory stress response (Neupert et al., 2018), which is the same as the stress response of neurophysiological activation. So, the anticipatory stress response in the experience of stress in the present, because of a future stressor and/or stress response. And this state (as in normal stress) could be adaptive or maladaptive depending on length and level of arousal, which is influenced by coping and perceived coping.
Symptoms (Neuport et al., 2018)
[edit | edit source]- Negative affect
- Reduced cognitive function
- Increased heart rate
- Elevated cortisol levels
Triggers / types of events (NeuroLaunch, 2024)
[edit | edit source]- Unfamiliar situations
- Performance evaluations
- Social situations
- Big life changes
Anxiety and stress
[edit | edit source]Because of the aspect of future perception impacting present arousal, anticipatory stress can be confused with anxiety. Anxiety and stress are related. Anxiety can be a part of the stress response, and the symptoms of each overlap. However, specific negative cognitions in relation to stress are considered consequences, not themselves part of stress, while cognitive symptoms are a part of anxiety (Endler & Parker, 1990). Anxiety is also sometimes considered to persist even without the presence of a stressor, which is not the case in stress (Endler & Parker, 1990). Even in anticipatory stress, the response is a reaction to a future stressor. However, a maladaptive stress response as a result of a perceived stressor that is not actually a threat or present, does exist. Given this, and other research where an anticipatory anxiety term is emerging, perhaps the two psychological concepts require refined definitions and a comprehensive framework to explain their relationship.
Coping
[edit | edit source]The possible maladaptive responses and aversive experience of stress create a need for effective coping strategies to deal with stressors.
Frameworks
[edit | edit source]Stress coping is described in various theories and frameworks in differing, complementary and overlapping ways.
Neupert et al. (2018) describes two types of coping that are engaged in before the stressor occurs; proactive coping and anticipatory coping. Proactive coping refers to behaviour that attempts to stop a stressor from happening, while anticipatory coping refers to behaviour that attempts to prepare for the consequences of a future stressor (which includes the stress response) (Neuport et al., 2018). This model seems to be framed largely around problem focused coping, which is defined by Lazarus & Folkman (1984) as engaging in efforts to change the problem (stressor) which usually involves generating and evaluating solutions. While its' counterpart, emotion focused coping, are efforts to mitigate the emotional distress caused by the stressor (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Perhaps emotion focused coping could be a part of anticipatory coping, if emotions are considered a consequence of a stressor by the subject of stress.
There was a perception that problem focused coping was always more effective, but this was challenged by Baker & Berenbum, (2007), when it was concluded that both were effective, depending on the context and nature of the stressor. Problem focussed coping works best when the individual has the agency and resources to implement solutions (Baker & Berenbum, 2007). However, there are situations when individuals do not have this, and problem solving is unachievable. In these cases, engaging with one's emotions in emotion focused coping is associated with improved psychological adjustment in that it promotes making meaning of the situation and resilience (Baker & Berenbum, 2007).
| Problem focused coping | Emotion focused coping |
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This emphasis on situational variables in understanding coping is reflected in the transactional model of coping proposed by Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). It stresses that an appraisal made by the individual will determine the type of coping that that person will use in that particular context (Lazarus & Folkman,1984 in Neupert, 2022). This is reflected in Neupert et al.'s (2018) concepts of proactive and anticipatory coping in that the former can only be used if the stressor is appraised to be avoidable, if not the latter is implemented. Because Lazarus and Folkman (1984) emphasise that individuals will use different coping strategies in different situations, coping is described as dynamic (Neupert, 2022). However, Neupert (2022) also discussed a stable understanding of coping where individual dispositional traits influence tendencies of individuals to cope in the same way across different contexts.
An integrative approach to coping proposed by Moos & Holahan (2003) takes both the context as well as dispositional trait-based factors into consideration when predicting how one will cope. Individuals are proposed to have an Environmental system which includes stressors and resources, and a Personal system which includes personality traits, coping styles and self-efficacy (Moos & Holahan, 2003). Coping is not just a simple reaction to the stressor, but involves the uniqueness of an individual (Neupert, 2022)
The resource-congruence model proposed by Wong (1993) links all these ideas, suggesting that coping is effective when resources that match the coping style implemented, so when it is congruent. Further that this congruency is influenced by individual differences, personal history and culture, which create coping schemas (Wong, 1993). Schemas are intertwined with the process of implementing a coping strategy which is also viewed through the lens of appraisals, where the centrality of the threat to the person is evaluated, and then if it is controllable (Wong, 1993). This model illustrates that not only are the stressor and the individual interacting in how coping manifests, but it also calls for investigation into the individual's broader context outside of the stressor in understanding how effective a coping strategy will be. Peacock & Wong (1996) extends this congruence model by identifying eight coping schemas:
| Schema | Stressor type |
|---|---|
| Problem focused | controllable |
| Social support | solvable by others |
| Preventive | anticipated, controllable |
| Passive-Emotional (eg. disengagement) | high threat, central |
| Active-Emotional (eg. emotional regulation) | less central |
| Self-Restructuring | own behaviour/cognition |
| Existential (eg. meaning-making) | loss/sufferring |
| Spiritual (eg. spitual belifs) | uncontrollable |
When the schema and stressor are congruent coping is effective and vice-versa, for example, restructuring the self in response to a stressor that is not caused by one's own maladaptive behaviours and cognitions may not be effective. However, these schemas must be analysed critically; for example, one may use a spiritual belief to respond stressors that are not uncontrollable, but may still be effective for the individual especially if their broader context is considered like experiences, family, culture etc. Also, disengaging from the stressor could be considered maladaptive even if the stressor is central and highly threatening.
Coping can also be considered more broadly in terms of universal maladaptive and adaptive strategies. Feldman & Hayes (2005) describes two types of each:
| Adaptive | Problem analysis | examining causes and meaning |
| Plan rehearsal | mentally rehearsing steps to address | |
| Maladaptive | Stagnant deliberation | rumination without solution |
| Outcome Fantasy | daydreaming ideal situations |
However, when considering the congruence model, they may be too simplistic, but perhaps the concise framework is easier to operationalise in research.
Also conceptualising broad categories of coping while considering some complexity in their outcomes, Roth & Cohen (1986) describe approach and avoidance coping:
| Approach | Avoidant |
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Biofeedback
[edit | edit source]Biofeedback is a psychological intervention by which a persons' physiological symptoms can be monitored in real time, providing the opportunity to regulate and see its efficacy. Meaning that biofeedback has the potential to be used in conjunction with other strategies discussed when one attempts to regulate their physiological stress symptoms. In individuals with PTSD, Schlatter et al. (2021) found biofeedback to be effective in improving cardiac coherence and subjective beliefs about cognitive performance, but not objective cognitive performance. The results of this intervention show the potential for reducing physiological stress, and improving self-efficacy as a factor in coping in Wong's (1993) congruence model. However, biofeedback's practicality in terms of access for the everyday person to implement as a strategy is not realistic. Further its application to anticipatory stress specifically has not been assessed.
Sleep and exercise
[edit | edit source]Poor sleep quality was found to be associated with anticipatory stress and overestimation stress errors in undergraduate students (Wang et al., 2021). Negative affect was also associated with inaccurately predicting daily stress levels (Wang et al., 2021). This evidence could suggest improving of sleep as a coping strategy for anticipatory stress, however the causality and the direction of the relationship is not established. Further, the accurate prediction of stress could also influence symptoms of stress, and perhaps good sleep is a precursor to being realistic about stress. The mediated relationship between exercise and adolescent insomnia by stress (Shen et al., 2024) highlights that there are more factors involved in a stress and sleep relationship. Especially as exercise on its own has been shown to have benefits for PTSD and anxiety (Sabri et al., 2023). Although these studies do not deal with anticipatory stress specifically, only related concepts, perhaps exercise could be a mechanism for coping with anticipatory stress. Sleep and exercise are not adequately covered in proposed stress coping framework but perhaps should if further investigation provides clearer evidence of their involvement.
Social Support
[edit | edit source]Exercise can also be considered a stressor, especially in terms of competitive athletes. social support could be conceptualised as mitigating anticipatory stress for athletes. On competition day athletes in teams' sports had milder stress responses in the form of salivary cortisol when compared to athletes in individual sports (Page et al., 2024). However, peer presence among premed students who already had higher levels of anticipatory stress increased negative effects of anticipatory stress (Grace, 2020). Therefore, a social comparison element of social support was identified (Grace, 2020) which perhaps is not present in a sport team give their efforts and results are combined. This research shows complex relationship social support and anticipatory stress coping which is perhaps explained by integrative models that take into account both context and individual difference. Social support may not be an effective strategy in every context for every individual; it may even exacerbate anticipatory stress.
Emotional regulation
[edit | edit source]Emotions are not only responses to stress but are used as adaptive functions to create stress to initiate coping with the stressor in an automatic bottom-up process (Flores-Kanter et al., 2021). Emotions also dictate how stress is interpreted, which is why emotional regulation can mediate coping and therefore harmful impacts of stress (Flores-Kanter et al., 2021). However varied difficulty in emotional regulation has been identified. Shafir & Sheppes' (2020) regulatory challenge model proposes that when anticipatory information supports a regulation goal, then regulation is easier, however when it does not regulation is harder (Shafir & Sheppes, 2020). Anticipatory information types and their consequences are summarised below (Shafir & Sheppes, 2020).
| Absent | Present | Biased | Unbiased | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Meaning | no warning of stressor | warned of an upcoming stressor | emotionally loaded | neutral/balanced |
| Regulation consequences | reactive, blunt | primes strategies used | primes meaning and therefore strategies used | flexible and accurate regulation |
Absent anticipatory information does not apply to anticipatory stress; however, the model shows that perhaps present, unbiased anticipatory information is perhaps the optimal context for emotionally regulation and therefore coping with stress.
In anticipating a socially stressful event, psychological maladjustment was associated with more dramatic drops in emotional inertia, partly due to it starting out high (Koval & Kuppens, 2011). Therefore, emotional regulation difficulty could also be mediated by an individual's unique adjustment. These studies support coping frameworks thank take context and individual factors into account. Emotional regulation could be an adaptive skill for coping; however, frameworks could expand to explain it as a mechanism by which congruent and appropriate strategies, mediated by the difficulty of contextual and individual variables.
The overlapping nature of frameworks and lack of practical implementation considered in research for anticipatory stress makes implementing coping strategies confusing. Careful individual evaluation is therefore required; you will need to consider:
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Socioecological and individual difference factors
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Global and socioeconomic threats
[edit | edit source]The COVID-19 pandemic illustrated how global threats can influence anticipatory stress. Research especially considered financial stress as a result of the pandemic. Greater levels of depression and anxiety correlated with economic related anticipatory stress during the pandemic (Farina et al., 2023). This illustrates potential further psychological consequences of anticipatory stress to consider and manage. It was found that state level policies reduced the negative impact of financial anticipatory stress on mental health (Farina et al., 2023) indicating that coping strategies and responsibility should extend from the individual to a broader social level. Given the potential for uncontrollable anticipated stressors in a pandemic economy and for state level strategies to be inadequate, perhaps engagement in emotion focused coping would be appropriate in this situation. The pandemic and subsequent financial anticipatory stress relationship complexity is extended by Grace (2022) to include uncertainty as an influential aspect of the stressor that impacts the negative consequences of stress.
Race, gender and sexuality
[edit | edit source]There is evidence that specific stressors impact can impact anticipatory stress differently according to race. Black and Latina women experienced greater anticipatory stress about police brutality than white women (Hope et al., 2021). This highlights structural racism as a context to be considered in anticipatory stress. Coping with it's consequential stressors has the potential to align with emotion focused coping strategy, given that structural racism impedes on individual agency and resources. However, this perhaps ignores the agency that people do have and encourages complacency when engagement with activism and critique is needed. Hope et al. (2021) also highlights that police brutality research often only consider men even though women are also affected. This shows a need for intersectionality to be considered experiences of anticipatory stress and therefore coping strategies. Further evidence for this is the increased emotional labour for marginalised groups highlighted by Bosley‐Smith (2023) using the example of discrimination and stigma as involved in LGBTQIA+ individuals' experience of anticipatory financial stress. Race gender and sexual identities intersect and have the potential to exacerbate anticipatory stress. These findings perhaps even indicate that strategies should be implemented beyond an individual to a social level, for example, government policies to dismantle structural racism, advocacy to consider women in research and reducing queer stigma and discrimination.
Age
[edit | edit source]Age also influences stress coping strategies. Challenging Feldman & Hayes (2005), it was found that in older adults, stagnant deliberation could decrease reactivity even though it considered maladaptive (Neupert et al., 2016 in Neupert et al., 2018). Further, among Polish students, it was found that the younger students had the lowest coping skills (Babicka-Wirkus et al., 2021). These findings suggest that age influences stress coping strategies, where effectiveness of different strategies varies across age brackets and younger people perhaps require more support.
Individual differences
[edit | edit source]Personality has the potential to influence anticipatory stress and coping. Vulnerability to anticipatory stress correlated with individuals high on neuroticism, while high conscientiousness and extraversion were associated with lower vulnerability (Schlatter et al., 2021). Further, biofeedback worked best for those high on openness to experience (Schlatter et al., 2021). Other individual traits and tendencies also influence coping and stressor evaluation. Decreased confidence in coping could be a result of low self-esteem (Pulopulos et al., 2020). Also, a bias for expecting threat is related to high anxiety and fear of negative evaluation (Pulopulos et al., 2020). Therefore, these traits should be considered when evaluating your vulnerability in experiencing and coping with anticipatory stress.
Research is lacking in extensive investigation into these factors but provides initial points to consider and to individually elaborate on:
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Quiz
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Conclusion
[edit | edit source]Anticipatory stress is the experience of stress due to an anticipated future stressor. Coping strategies can mitigate anticipatory stress. However, the depth of studies that exist to explain the social factors and individual differences, especially in terms of anticipatory stress specifically is not adequate. There are numerous coping frameworks, although critical evaluation is required to understand how they inform effective coping, especially when anticipatory stress specially is not considered. These shortcomings are perhaps explained by the arguably confusing nature of the concept due to its overlap with other psychological concepts. Therefore, coping strategies are not always backed by rigorous scientific evidence nor can they always apply in real life situations. Implementing effective coping strategies requires extensive critical reflection from the individual, considering their own influence on the context and vice versa.
See also
[edit | edit source]Anticipatory Anxiety (Wikipedia)
Anxiety (Wikipedia)
Intersectionality (Wikipedia)
Psychological stress (Wikipedia)
Schema (psychology) (Wikiversity)
References
[edit | edit source]Baker, J. P., & Berenbaum, H. (2007). Emotional approach and problem-focused coping: A comparison of potentially adaptive strategies. Cognition and Emotion, 21(1), 95–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930600562276
Bosley-Smith, E. R. (2023). Anticipatory economic stressors: Perceived and potential sources of economic disadvantage for LGBTQ adults. Sociological Inquiry, 93(3), 465–495. https://doi.org/10.1111/soin.12533
Endler, N. S., & Parker, J. D. A. (1990). Stress and anxiety: Conceptual and assessment issues. Stress Medicine, 6(3), 243–248. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2460060310
Farina, M. P., Zhang, Z., & Donnelly, R. (2023). Anticipatory stress, state policy contexts, and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. SSM – Population Health, 23, 101415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2023.101415
Feldman, G., & Hayes, A. (2005). Preparing for problems: A measure of mental anticipatory processes. Journal of Research in Personality, 39(5), 487–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2004.05.005
Flores-Kanter, P. E., Moretti, L., & Medrano, L. A. (2021). A narrative review of emotion regulation process in stress and recovery phases. Heliyon, 7(6), e07218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07218
Grace, M. K. (2020). “They understand what you’re going through”: Experientially similar others, anticipatory stress, and depressive symptoms. Society and Mental Health, 11(1), 20–37. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156869320910773
Grace, M. K. (2022). The contributions of social stressors and coping resources to psychological distress among those who experienced furlough or job loss due to COVID-19. Work and Occupations, 50(2), 212–254. https://doi.org/10.1177/07308884221123325
Hope, E. C., Brinkman, M., Hoggard, L. S., Stokes, M. N., Hatton, V., Volpe, V. V., & Elliot, E. (2021). Black adolescents' anticipatory stress responses to multilevel racism: The role of racial identity. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 91(4), 487–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000547
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Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing Company.
Moos, R. H., & Holahan, C. J. (2003). Dispositional and contextual perspectives on coping: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 59(12), 1387–1403. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10229
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Neupert, S. D., Neubauer, A. B., Scott, S. B., Hyun, J., & Sliwinski, M. J. (2018). Back to the future: Examining age differences in processes before stressor exposure. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 74(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gby074
Neurolaunch. (2024). Anticipatory stress: What it is and how to manage it. https://neurolaunch.com/anticipatory-stress/
Page, M., Glandorf, H. L., Mallinson-Howard, S. H., Madigan, D. J., Dawson, S. A., Jones, S., & Kavanagh, O. (2024). Blunted anticipatory stress responses on competition day in team sports athletes compared to individual sports athletes. Comprehensive Psychoneuroendocrinology, 20, Article 100254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpnec.2024.100254
Peacock, E. J., & Wong, P. T. P. (1996). Anticipatory stress: The relation of locus of control, optimism, and control appraisals to coping. Journal of Research in Personality, 30(2), 204–222. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1996.0014
Pulopulos, M. M., Baeken, C., & De Raedt, R. (2020). Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation. Hormones and Behavior, 117, 104587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2019.104587
Roth, S., & Cohen, L. J. (1986). Approach, avoidance, and coping with stress. American Psychologist, 41(7), 813–819. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.41.7.813
Sabri, S., Rashid, N., & Mao, Z.-X. (2023). Physical activity and exercise as a tool to cure anxiety and posttraumatic stress disorder. Mental Illness, 15(2), Article 4294753. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/4294753
Schlatter, S., Schmidt, L., Lilot, M., Guillot, A., & Debarnot, U. (2021). Implementing biofeedback as a proactive coping strategy: Psychological and physiological effects on anticipatory stress. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 140, 103834. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2021.103834
Shafir, R., & Sheppes, G. (2020). How anticipatory information shapes subsequent emotion regulation. Emotion, 20(1), 68–74. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000673
Shen, Q., Wang, S., Liu, Y., et al. (2024). The chain mediating effect of psychological inflexibility and stress between physical exercise and adolescent insomnia. Scientific Reports, 14, 24348. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-75919-8
Ursin, H., & Eriksen, H. R. (2004). The cognitive activation theory of stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29(5), 567–592. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4530(03)00091-X
Wang, Y.-R., Black, K. J., & Martin, A. (2021). Antecedents and outcomes of daily anticipated stress and stress forecasting errors. Stress and Health, 37(5), 898–913. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3044
Wong, P. T. P. (1993). Effective management of life stress: The resource-congruence model. Stress Medicine, 9(1), 51–60. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2460090110
External links
[edit | edit source]Managing anticipatory stress: causes and strategies (NeuroLaunch) Free open-source bigfive personality traits test (Psychology Tools)