English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)

Plurilingual education portal

Subject classification: this is an education resource.

Type classification: this resource is a course.

Starting activity

1. Watch the following YouTube video:

What is English as a Lingua Franca? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4kISzi01Aqc&t=27s

2. Reflect about your own usage of English in your daily life:

• Who do you speak English with? Do you or they speak English as a L1?
• Why is English used among speakers who do not speak it as a L1?  
• In what ways is using English as a Lingua Franca different from using it as a native or second language?    

Objectives

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Define English as a Lingua Franca;
• Compare the concepts of “English as a Lingua Franca”, “English as an International Language”, “World Englishes”, and “English as a Multilingua Franca”;
• Identify challenges and opportunities in the teaching and learning of English as a lingua franca.

Key words

lingua franca; English as a Lingua Franca; English as an International Language; World Englishes

Table of content

1. Introduction
2. History of the concept
3. Definitions and critical discussion of concepts
4. Pedagogical implications of Teaching English as a Lingua Franca
5. Take home messages
6. Self assessment
7. Resources to go further
8. References

Introduction

It may seem like a basic observation, but let us begin by remembering that communication needs in the 21^st century are different from those of previous centuries, due to human movements, the faster circulation of goods and ideas, and the growing use of computer-mediated communication, to name but a few reasons. However, it would be a mistake to assume that only nowadays is a language designated as a lingua franca used to ensure communication in situations of linguistic contact between people. Indeed, plurilingualism was a characteristic of human societies through history (Pavlenko, 2023).

In situations where the interlocutors do not share the same L1, there are several possibilities for communication, with varying combinations of different languages. For example, the interlocutors may resort to:

• intercomprehension: (a form of multilingual communication in which each interlocutor expresses themselves in one language and understands the other, usually due to linguistic similarities and contextual clues);
• interlinguistic mediation: a form of communication in which one person makes communication intelligible to both parties;
• a lingua franca: a language common to all participants in the interaction, which may be the L1 of one or more interlocutors or a foreign language for all those involved.

This lesson addresses the specificity of communication using English as a lingua franca, and discusses the pedagogical implications of teaching English as a lingua franca. We begin by explaining the evolution of the context, before moving on to present a distinction and discussion of different concepts related to lingua franca, associated with English. We will then reflect on the pedagogical implications of this distinction.

History of the concept

The term lingua franca originally means "Frankish language," referring to the language of the Franks. This is because, since the time of the Crusades, people in the Middle East used this term to refer to all Westerners they came into contact with (Frath, 2025). Over the centuries, various languages have served as lingua francas, each playing this role in different contexts, regions, and fields of specialization. Depending on the time period and the needs of the communities involved, these languages facilitated communication in areas such as trade, diplomacy, science, religion, and administration, allowing people from diverse linguistic backgrounds to understand one another and collaborate more or less effectively.

According to Bayyurt (2025), English became a global language through historical forces such as British colonization from the 16th century onward and the rise of the United States as a global superpower after World War II. The spread of the Internet further reinforced its dominance, especially in fields like business, education, media, and technology. Today, billions use English as a first, second, or additional language, making it a key tool for cross-cultural communication.

Considering the ratio between the number of native speakers of English, which is the language we are dealing with in this lesson, and the number of interpersonal contacts established on a global scale, it must be acknowledged that the number of situations in which native speakers of the language are present is considerably lower than the overall number of situations. As put forward by Kirkpatrick and Deterding (2024, p. 195), “there are more users of English as an additional language than native speakers”. And according to Rajagopalan (2025, p. 19), “English is today (...) the most widely spoken language right across the world. This is not to deny that there are other languages, notably Mandarin Chinese and Spanish, whose speakers outnumber those of English, but if we include speakers who regularly use it as a second language or resort to it occasionally, the picture changes dramatically”..

According toSelvi and Galloway (2025, p. 1), “since the mid-1970s, applied linguistics and language teaching scholars developed several related research paradigms with ideological synergies to systematically scrutinize the global spread, and use, of the English language” . In the following section, such research paradigms will be presented.

Definitions and critical discussion of concepts

Over time, English has adapted to diverse contexts, leading to two major areas of scholarly focus. The first is World Englishes (WE), which examines localized, nativized varieties of English that emerged in post-colonial settings, attached to the classification of Kachru (1985; Figure 1). Studies on World Englishes claim that English “should not be seen in terms of a single monolithic standard, as variation is the norm. And just as there are many varieties of British English, there are also many World Englishes, which in turn have sub-varieties” (Kirkpatrick & Deterding, 2024, p. 188). This concept inspired a lot of comparative studies of the different varieties, aligned with comparative and contrastive linguistics.

https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fit:720/format:webp/1*nw28GD2t0tgsN70-48lCLQ.jpeg

Figure 1. “Three circle model of World Englishes” (following Kachru, 1985).

The second is English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), which explores how English is used as a flexible, dynamic means of communication among speakers from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. ELF research defines this usage as a “shared common language” (Seidlhofer, 2011) aimed at facilitating mutual understanding rather than conforming to native-speaker norms. According to this author, ELF is “any use of English among speakers of different first languages for whom English is the communicative medium of choice” (Seidlhofer, 2011, p. 7). Speakers use strategies like repetition, paraphrasing, and accommodation to ensure clarity and effective communication (Jenkins, Baker & Dewey, 2018). The research paradigm around English as a Lingua Franca inspired a lot of studies using interaction and conversation analysis.

The following quotations compares the concepts “World Englishes” and “English as a Lingua Franca”:

A key distinction between ELF and World Englishes is that the latter are spoken by people who share linguistic and cultural backgrounds and reflect the lives experiences of their speakers, including words borrowed from local languages in order to express cultural phenomena (...), while ELF occurs with speakers from different backgrounds (Kirkpatrick & Deterding, 2024, p. 195).

By the same time, also the concept of “English as an International Language” saw the light, focusing on “the contexts and functions of English and the associated implications of the globalization of English” (Selvi & Galloway, 2025, p. 1).

As a third phase, English as a Multilingual Franca can be named, focusing on variation and adaptability in multilingual interaction (Jenkins, 2015). Rather than imitating native English, ELF users draw creatively on their full linguistic repertoires, emphasizing intelligibility and cooperation. A central feature of ELF is its multilingual nature. It constantly evolves through contact with other languages and cultures, reflecting a globalized, transcultural reality. However, as an emerging research paradigm, ELF faces challenges in establishing its theoretical framework and practical applications. Further research is needed to  situate it within the broader field of applied language studies.

All the four concepts are plurilingual in nature, even if they seem to display a monolingual surface form (Kirkpatrick & Deterding, 2024, p. 196). “World Englishes”, as in the case of Singapore English, carries traces of English in contact with local languages, resulting in a flexible use of shared languages within a specific geographical context. English as a Lingua Franca and English as an International Language, although they may appear monolingual - since the communicative situation involves only one language due to the lack (or partial sharing) of other linguistic resources - are still inherently multilingual. This is because speakers often transfer expressions and structures from their first languages. Finally, the concept of English as a Multilingual Franca embraces the speakers’ multilingualism and linguistic contact not only as a starting point for communication but also as a driving force in the evolution of the language itself.

On a critical stance, the concept of ELF is criticised for its supposedly apolitical and “neutral” approach to English (Philipson, 2007). Framing ELF can be ideologically problematic and dangerous if it is seen as a culturally neutral tool that provides equal access to all (Philipson, 2008), whereas actually English can be seen as lingua economica (in economy), lingua academica (in academia) or lingua cultura (e.g. entertainment) and lingua americana etc. In this sense, the concept “linguistic imperialism” (Philipson, 1992) refers to the domination of certain languages nationally and internationally on others, often leading to the suppression of other languages and forcing their speakers towards language shift in dominant languages. Problematizing also the concept of Word Englishes and the myths of International English as “natural”, “neutral” and “beneficial”, Pennycook (2006, p. 109) suggests that “we need to disinvent English, to demythologise it, and then to look at how a reinvention of English may help us understand more clearly what it is we are dealing with here”. On the other hand, the notion of linguistic imperialism has been criticized for being structuralistic overlooking the complexity and local dynamics of language use as well as agency for resistance (Blommaert, 2010). In response, it is considered important to understand how ELF functions / can function in complementary rather than competitive relations to other languages, approaching it as a “common property” disconnected from English as a native language and building on a research- based description of ELF actual use (Seidlhofer, 2007).

Pedagogical implications of teaching English as a Lingua Franca

Conceptualizing ELF as above-mentioned and bearing in mind the critical stance presented, it is clear that pedagogical practices need to be adjusted. As put on by Rajagopan (2025):

In light of the dramatic changes in the way English has evolved (...), it goes without saying that teachers of English worldwide - and this, to be sure, includes those working in “native” English settings - have to wake up (...) to the fact that we urgently need to go back to the drawing board and redesign our plans, so as to set up more appropriate goals for and identify more adequate priorities in ELT [English Language Teaching] (Rajagopalan, 2025, p. 31).

This quotation points to the concept of ELF awareness and ELF aware teaching which involves engaging with ELF research and understanding ways of integration into the classroom, with activities that mirror and localise “one’s interpretation of the ELF construct” (Sifakis & Bayyurt, 2018, p. 459). In practice, pedagogical implications would include activities that develop metalinguistic awareness and metacognitive awareness and authentic tasks to reflect on learners’ own beliefs on language use and communication in English. Going beyond the “native speaker” myth, and facilitating students to develop communication skills and strategies to a wider use of English within diverse ELF contexts, dealing with flexible practices is also important in the ELF classroom (Antonello, 2024). Focusing on intelligibility, it is important to move away from an exclusively norm-focused language environment towards a more open and inclusive approach, in order to be prepared to interact appropriately and effectively in intercultural contexts.

Concerning language teaching and assessment of English as a Multilingual Franca, it would involve capitalising on students’ plurilingual repertoires both in teaching and assessment practices focusing more “on the ability to negotiate diversity in contact encounters in terms of both English (in its lingua franca guise) and multilingualism” (Jenkins, 2015, p. 79), prioritizing negotiation and co-construction and legitimising translanguaging and fluid, hybrid language practises.

Take home messages

• The use of a lingua franca to bridge language differences is not new (it has long been a practical solution in multilingual contexts).
• The use of lingua franca has historical roots, and today it is English who plays this role globally, not because most people are native speakers, but because it serves as a common tool for communication in our interconnected world.
• The research on English as a widespread language followed an evolution, from acknowledging the different varieties of the language (World Englishes), to its study as a shared resource among interlocutors (Lingua Franca and International Language), to being acknowledged as a flexible and dynamic resource being shaped by plurilingual contact situations (English as a Multilingual Franca). More recently, English as an International Language was also proposed.
• Teaching English as a Lingua Franca implies helping the students to develop effective communication skills that prioritize mutual understanding over native-speaker norms. In practice, it means teaching strategies such as paraphrasing, clarification, repair of misunderstandings, and accommodation to navigate real-world plurilingual interactions.

Self-assessment

Self test

1

All concepts used to refer to the global spread of English see the use of just one language in communication as negative.

	A. True
	B. False

2

The concept of English as a lingua franca challenges the symbolic superior position of the native-speaker in contrast to the so-called non-native speaker.

	A. True
	B. False

3

When teaching English as a Lingua Franca, intelligibility should be privileged over the native-speaker norms.

	A. True
	B. False

4

The concept of English as a Lingua Franca emphasizes translanguaging practices.

	A. True
	B. False

Self reflection:

Below you can read an advertisement for IELTS exams, a famous standardized test for English (Jenkins, 2015, p. 79). (IELTS stands for International English Language Testing System). What perspectives of English are reflected and how do they contradict with ELF?

IELTS is offered at over 900 locations around the world, and IELTS scores are accepted by over 9,000 organisations globally – including over 3,000 institutions in the US… Test questions are developed by specialists in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the UK and the US, making it a truly international test.

Resources to go further

• Jenkins, J., Baker, W., & Dewey, M. (Eds.). (2018). The Routledge Handbook of English as a Lingua Franca. Routledge.
• Kachru, B. (2005). Whose English is it? Asian Englishes: Beyond the Canon. Hong Kong University Press.
• Selvi, A.F., & Galloway, N. (Eds.) (2025). The Routledge Handbook of Teaching English as an International Language. Routledge.

Bibliography

Antonello, M. (2024). Development of ELF-aware materials to foster the use of communication strategies in the ELT classroom.  Research Papers in Language Teaching and Learning 14(2), 30-41.

Bayyurt, Y. (2025). English as a Lingua Franca. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue/ Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education. Peter Lang. Open access.

Blommaert, J. (2010). The Sociolinguistics of Globalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Frath, P. (2025). Anglais comme lingua franca. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue/ Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education. Peter Lang. Open access.

Jenkins, J. (2015). Repositioning English and multilingualism in English as a lingua franca. Englishes in Practice, 2(3), pp. 49-85.

Jenkins, J., Baker, W., & Dewey, M. (Eds.). (2018). The Routledge handbook of English as a lingua franca. Routledge.

Kachru, B. (1985). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: English language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk & H. Widowson (Eds.), English in the world: Teaching and learning the language and literatures (p.11-36). Cambridge University Press.

Kirkpatrick, A., & Deterding, D. (2024). World Englishes and English as a lingua franca. In Li Wei, Z. Hua & J. Simpson (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Applied Linguistics (pp. 187-199). Routledge.

Pavlenko, A. (Ed.) (2023). Multilingualism and History. Cambridge University Press.

Pennycook, A. (2006), The Myth of English as an International Language. In Makoni, P. S., & Pennycook, P. A. (Eds.) Disinventing and reconstituting languages (pp. 90-115).  Channel View Publications.

Phillipson, R. (2007). English, no longer a foreign language in Europe? In J. Cummins, & C. Davison (Eds.), International Handbook of English Language Teaching (pp. 123-136). Springer.

Phillipson, R. (2008). The linguistic imperialism of neoliberal empire. Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, 5(1), 1-43.

Phillipson, R. (1992). Linguistic imperialism. London, Oxford University Press.

Rajagopalan, K. (2025). Teaching English as a world language. In A. Selvi & N. Galloway (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Teaching English as an International Language (pp. 19-33). Routledge.

Seidlhofer, B. (2007). Common property: English as a lingua franca in Europe. In J. Cummins, & C. Davison (Eds.), International Handbook of English Language Teaching (pp. 137-149). Springer International Handbooks of Education Vol. 15.

Seidlhofer, B. (2011). Understanding English as a Lingua Franca. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Selvi, A.F., & Galloway, N. (2025). Introduction. In A. Selvi & N. Galloway (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Teaching English as an International Language (pp. 1-15). Routledge.

Sifakis, N. C. & Bayyurt, Y. (2018). ELF-aware teacher education and development. In J. Jenkins, W. Baker, and M. Dewey (Eds.), The Routledge handbook on English as a lingua franca (pp. 456–67). Abington: Routledge.

Credits

This resource has been created by Projet PEP (discuss • contribs) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) :

• Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly)
• Sílvia Melo-Pfeifer (Universität Hamburg).

Portal: Plurilingual education