Plurilingual education portal

Subject classification: this is an education resource.

Type classification: this resource is a course.

Starting activity

1. First, before reading any further, think about the concept of a language being “endangered”. What does this concept mean to you? What might be the danger involved? Try to identify a few reasons why a language might be considered endangered.

2. Estimate the percentage of endangered languages among the approximately 7,500 languages in the world. You can then compare your estimate with the scale proposed on GlottoScope.

3. In a third step, drawing in particular on the resources proposed below, draw up a list of organizations that are involved in the protection of so-called “endangered” languages. Also note the other terms used to refer to this type of languages.

Objectives

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

identify the challenges facing endangered languages in a multilingual context;
use respectful language when referring to endangered languages;
understand approaches to promoting endangered languages
understand the relationship between endangered languages and multilingual education.

Key words

Endangered languages, minority languages, indigenous languages, linguistic minority, revitalisation, reclamation, language promotion, plurilingual education, language policy

Introduction

“A language is endangered if it is not passed on to younger generations”. This is the simplest definition given by the Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger (original title: l’Atlas des langues en danger; p. 10, our translation). When we speak of “endangered” languages, we often refer to languages that—beyond the lack of intergenerational transmission—are used by numerically smaller groups and are not always officially recognized. There are many terms used to describe these languages, and we will see that not all of them are considered respectful.

Languages considered to be “endangered” therefore constitute a sensitive subject, especially since language – in the generic sense – is intrinsically linked to human beings. It influences, for example, how we form relationships with others, how we identify ourselves, how we take a stand, how we create art, and how we understand and transmit knowledge. It is therefore important to reflect on the terms used to name languages. In this regard, and to clarify matters, a guide was even published in 2025 to help journalists choose respectful terminology: Say it with respect.

History

A question of terminology

Language labelling is always a political and ideological undertaking. It is particularly sensitive in the case of languages (and therefore their users) considered to be less powerful. Terms such as “less used,” “minority,” “small,” “small-scale,” or “endangered” reinforce and stabilize this position. Labeling languages as “minoritized,” “oppressed,” “marginalized,” or “excluded” takes into account the dynamics of power relations. Furthermore, if these languages are associated with communities that have a historical continuity with societies existing before conquest and colonization, the term “indigenous languages” is used.

This is the case, for example, with UNESCO. The term “indigenous” language is less commonly used in French. A curious example is the Office of the Commissioner of Indigenous Languages in Canada. In Europe, the term “regional and minority” language is used, as we shall see in the section on the protection of “endangered” languages.

Identification of endangered languages

Two important measures were introduced in 1998 to promote so-called “regional or minority” languages: The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages came into force in the same year as the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. However, two important limitations should be noted: not all member countries of the Council of Europe have yet ratified these two documents, and migrant languages are not covered by this protection system.

There are various scales for measuring whether a language is “endangered”, i.e. at risk of falling into disuse. According to GlottoScope's AES (Agglomerated Endangerment Status) scale, which classifies the majority of languages as “endangered”, only 34.13% of the world's languages are not considered as such. Other scales yield similar results, such as Ethnologue, which takes a more optimistic view, considering that “only” 43% of the world’s languages are “endangered.” Looking ahead, between 50% and 90% of the world’s languages could be seriously threatened or disappear by the year 2100 (Steele & Hagmair, 2024, p.3).

Weight of the “digital divide” between languages

In addition, there is a new challenge related to the digital divide, which is growing due to digital practices that give greater prominence to so-called international languages. Indeed, these practices increase the structural disadvantages of languages considered “endangered” because they are not disseminated online and are classified, from a technological perspective, as “small-corpus” languages. The popularization of Artificial Intelligence (AI) worsens the situation for these small-corpus languages, amplifying the use of “dominant” languages through the development of AI-generated content online (Jouitteau 2023).

Language as a human right

The preservation of linguistic and human diversity is a global issue in which “endangered” languages play an important role. Research highlights their multiple contributions (cultural heritage, identity, social justice, knowledge preservation, well-being and scientific value, etc.). For example, UNESCO (2025) draws attention to the link between linguistic diversity and the climate crisis, arguing that knowledge of ecosystems and traditional sustainable practices is essential in the fight against global warming.

Saving linguistic diversity

Most “endangered” languages today share the common feature of existing within a multilingual context. Research adopts the approach of linguistic ecology advocated by Mühlhäusler (2018), which takes linguistic diversity as its starting point and considers languages as integrated within meaningful cultural, economic, and ecological contexts. To support an “endangered” language, linguistic diversity must therefore be preserved. In the field of education, a key area for the preservation of linguistic diversity, plurilingual education (Council of Europe, CM/Rec(2022-1)) and the didactics of plurilingualism are important levers for this preservation. This is part of a paradigm shift, which holds that by taking plurilingualism as a starting point, the foundations for future plurilingualism will be established.

Linguistic revitalisation and reclamation

Revitalisation and reclamation aim to safeguard linguistic diversity. However, there are important differences, as revitalisation pursues the idea of “bringing a language back to life” through measures that include, for example, intergenerational transmission or formal education. Reclamation emphasizes the idea that communities “take back” their language. Self-determination and community control are crucial (Leonard 2017). In what follows, we will list approaches to promote “endangered” languages within linguistic diversity, without distinguishing between revitalization and reclamation.

Conceptions

Several key approaches are implemented to support people who want to use “endangered” languages:

Create a safe space or a “breathing space” where the language can be used without pressure or fear of discrimination;
Engage with “new speakers”, that is, anyone who is committed to learning the language;
Raise awareness at the international level in line with UNESCO’s Decade of Indigenous Languages (2022–2032), a plan aimed at strengthening language rights and cultural diversity;
Document the languages, involving the communities that use them, through recordings or any other form of record that helps preserve their memory;
Create digital resources incorporating this documentation and share them on websites to enable access and learning;
Develop plurilingual education programs in educational institutions (universities, high schools, middle schools, etc.) with dedicated courses, seminars, and other activities to train teachers and learners;
Provide institutional support and sustainably fund languages, notably through laws and government initiatives that ensure long-term resources;
Develop respectful relationships between researchers and communities to avoid any colonial ideology;
Develop collaborative approaches (for example, for the creation of corpora).

Take home messages

Understand that the endangerment of a language leads to it no longer being used;
Be aware that labelling languages is a political and ideological undertaking;
Understand that language is a human right that is defended by safeguarding linguistic diversity;
be aware that the census and documentation of minority and indigenous languages are essential, in the sense that they contribute to their recognition and to the preservation of human heritage;
Implement the promotion of these languages within institutions, notably in schools, through their recognition and, where possible, their teaching.

Self-assessment

Make a list of terms used to refer to languages that are “in danger”. Classify the terms you find into two columns (respectful / to be avoided). Check your answers by consulting the guide.
List approaches to safeguarding linguistic diversity. Compare with the list above. Identify approaches that you consider particularly effective.

Resources to go further

International Decade of Indigenous Languages 2022-2032: https://www.unesco.org/en/decades/indigenous-languages

UNESCO World Atlas of Languages: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000380132/PDF/380132eng.pdf.multi
UNESCO Atlas of the world's languages in danger: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000187026/PDF/187026eng.pdf.multi

Say it with respect! Journalists’ Guide: https://fpcc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/A-Journalists-Guide-to-Reporting-on-Indigenous-Minoritized-Languages-Language-Endangerment-and-Language-Revitalization.pdf

The Heritage Language Exchange: https://www.hlxchange.com

Living Tongues: https://livingtongues.org

Global Lessons: Indigenous languages and multilingualism in school programs: https://medium.com/global-lessons-indigenous-languages-and-multilingu/global-lessons-indigenous-languages-and-multilingualism-in-school-programs-7be80f580646#8b35

Bibliography

CM/Rec(2022)1. L’ importance de l’éducation plurilingue et interculturelle pour une culture de la démocratie. Recommandation CM/Rec(2022)1 adoptée par le Comité des Ministres du Conseil de l’Europe le 2 février 2022 et exposé des motifs. https://www.ecml.at/Portals/1/documents/about-us/Recommendation%20and%20EM%20FR%20FINAL.pdf

Jouitteau, Mélanie. 2023. Guide de survie des langues minorisées à l'heure de l'intelligence artificielle: Appel aux communautés parlantes, Lapurdum, numéro spécial 6.

Leonard, W.Y. 2017. Producing language reclamation by decolonising ‘language’. In W. Y. Leonard & H. De Korne (Eds.), Language Documentation and Description (pp. 15-36). London: EL Publishing.

Mühlhäusler, P. (2018): Theoretical and practical aspects of ecological language planning. In P. Mühlhäusler, R. Ludwig, & S. Pagel (Hrsg.): Linguistic ecology and language contact, Cambridge, 323–341, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139649568.018

Steele, P & Hagmair, G. (2024). Supporting minoritised and endangered languages. A policy brief based on the results from the CREWS and RISE UP projects. https://www.riseupproject.eu/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Supporting-minoritised-and-endangered-languages_CREWS_Rise-Up_-v3.pdf

UNESCO. (2025). Les langues comptent : orientations mondiales pour l’éducation multilingue. https://doi.org/10.54675/

Credits

This resource has been created by Projet PEP (discuss • contribs) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission)

Thierry Gaillat (Université de La Réunion)
Eva Vetter (Universität Wien)