Deaf and hard of hearing people and mulitlingual education

Plurilingual education portal

Subject classification: this is an education resource.

Type classification: this resource is a course.

Starting activity

Select three different images that, for you, represent communication.

For each image, answer briefly these sentences:

What kind of communication does this image show?
What languages or codes are being used? (spoken, written, signed, visual…)
Who is communicating and how do they understand each other?
What helps make the message clear, even without sound?
In what ways do you think deaf and hard-of-hearing learners experience communication differently from hearing learners? Try to consider both challenges and strengths (e.g., visual learning, bilingualism, multimodality).

Optional (for Sign language users): Record a short Sign language video (30 seconds) where you introduce one of your chosen images and sign the main idea of your reflection.

Keywords

multilingual, deaf, hard of hearing, sign languages, spoken languages, education, foreign languages teaching and learning

Objectives

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

Explain the main goals and principles of multilingual education, especially for deaf and hard of hearing learners.
Distinguish between different communication modalities (spoken, written, signed, visual) and describe how they interact in bimodal and bilingual contexts.
Identify the differences between Deaf (cultural-linguistic identity) and deaf and hard of hearing (audiological condition).
Recognize the linguistic, cognitive, and cultural factors influencing language learning among deaf and hard of hearing students.
Describe the roles of sign language, spoken language, and assistive technologies in promoting accessibility and inclusion.
Reflect on how multimodal and inclusive teaching strategies can enhance communication and learning outcomes.

1. Introduction

Multilingual education for D/deaf and hard of hearing people is an interdisciplinary field that combines language studies, pedagogy, neuroscience, and Deaf studies. Its main goal is to ensure equitable access to education using multiple languages, including sign language, written language, and, in some cases, spoken language with technological or visual supports.

The adoption of inclusive teaching strategies, multimodality and the use of assistive technologies are critical to improving accessibility and fostering academic and vocational success for people who are deaf and hard of hearing.

This resource will explore theoretical principles, educational models, and best practices for effective multilingual education in this field, taking into consideration specifically the cultural context and the fact that we have to distinguish between two groups of a) deaf and hard of hearing people who are learners of sign languages, b) deaf and hard of hearing people who are learning spoken languages.

2. Theoretical overview

Term	Focus	Typical Communication Mode	Cultural Aspect
Deaf (capital D)	Cultural and linguistic identity	Sign language	Member of Deaf community
deaf (lowercase d)	General term	May vary	Not necessarily
Hard of Hearing	Medical / audiological condition; Partial hearing loss	Spoken language, sometimes with supports or signs	Not necessarily

When talking about deafness and hearing loss in the context of language acquisition—such as questions about the best learning methods, communication strategies, or possible outcomes for deaf and hard of hearing learners—there is often only one possible answer: ‘It depends’. This is because generalizing about multilingualism is already extremely difficult, and even more so when considering individuals with deafness or hearing loss. These learners exhibit unique linguistic features influenced not only by environmental, personal, cultural, and emotional factors (as with all language users), but also by perceptual, articulatory, and educational/rehabilitative factors. Therefore, any reflection, hypothesis, or suggestion about specific teaching techniques, methods, or approaches in language learning may be effective for some and wholly unproductive for others.”

This bilingual condition can be described as bimodal, dilalic, and simultaneous.

Bimodal means that two different communication channels are used: one spoken and auditory (for example Italian language) and one visual and gestural (LIS – Italian Sign Language).
Dilalic describes a situation in which a person can use two linguistic codes that belong to the same linguistic system or community, choosing one or the other depending on the context, the interlocutor, or the communicative purpose.
Simultaneous means that both languages can sometimes be used together, since they operate through different channels (voice and hands at the same time).

Deafness manifests its most profound and significant effects precisely in the sphere of linguistic communication. Almost all deaf and hard of hearing signers, for example, in Italy, know and use the Italian language, which guarantees them access to social and professional life. In these cases, we refer to a form of bilingualism that is extremely complex and idiosyncratic, which we might call “bimodal, dilalic, and simultaneous.” As introduced above, bimodal means the use of Spoken language and Signed language, that rely on two different communicative channels (phono-acoustic and visual-gestural); dilalic means a deaf or hard of hearing person that can use either of the two codes in their repertoire depending on contextual variables, such as the communicative situation, the characteristics of the interlocutor, the communicative purpose, etc.; simultaneous means that the speaker/signer can exploit both language systems at the same time, as they operate on different communicative channels. Depending on the linguistic, educational, and rehabilitative path undertaken by the deaf and hard of hearing learner, this determines how oral and written messages are perceived and processed both cognitively and linguistically.

Concerning deaf and hard of hearing as multilingual learners (DMLs), we have to consider that these students not only navigate the challenges of hearing differences but also face a range of different languages and modalities while growing up. In this sense, the underlying idea is the distinction between vertical identity, which comes from family and heritage, and horizontal identity, which develops through interactions with the broader community. This is especially significant for DMLs, as they often balance multiple languages and cultural influences.

Moreover, plurilingual development can happen in different ways, as the wide range of variational factors characterize d/deaf and hard of hearing learners’ experiences. Some children learn languages sequentially (one after another), while others acquire them simultaneously. On the one hand, the way languages are learned can be additive, when new languages enhance existing ones; on the other hand, it can result in subtractive learning, when a new language replaces a home language.

Learning a second sign language for individuals whose first language is a sign language presents unique opportunities and challenges. Just like spoken languages, sign languages differ significantly in grammar, vocabulary, and structure. Therefore, teaching a new sign language to deaf and hard of hearing individuals requires specialized instructional approaches that consider their existing linguistic competencies and the distinct characteristics of the languages involved. In this sense, it is relevant to take into account a bilingual approach, thus the use of both the native sign language and the target sign language, that can facilitate learning through comparison and translation of the two visual languages, leading to a deep understanding of the differences and similarities between languages and cultures. Moreover, the involvement of deaf educators is essential to ensure authentic linguistic modeling, value deaf culture, and promote an inclusive learning environment.

Additionally, it is impossible to ignore the challenges and considerations of the linguistic diversity between sign languages, as well as the lack of educational resources that are limited and need to be developed by adapting existing materials or creating new ones. Furthermore, the official recognition of sign languages still varies across countries, making the situation more and more heterogeneous: For example, in Italy, LIS has only recently been officially recognized, impacting the availability of formal courses and the development of structured educational programs.

Teaching foreign spoken languages to deaf and hard of hearing learners can involve challenges, as traditional communicative approaches may not be suitable because these learners cannot hear spoken input. They can have limited exposure to auditory language, which makes engagement with listening and speaking-based methods difficult. Additionally, each deaf and hard of hearing learner can have a unique linguistic background, with varying proficiency in their first language (L1) and different starting points for learning a second language (L2). Therefore, language learning approaches can be tailored to individual needs, especially for bimodal learners who may even have a third language.

Motivation and emotional well-being can also play a significant role in language success for deaf and hard of hearing learners. Their self-esteem can influence their learning environment, and teachers can foster a positive atmosphere by addressing these factors. Since deaf and hard of hearing learners primarily process information visually, teaching methods can be adapted to leverage this strength through visual strategies like color-coding, information chunking, and visual memory exercises, which can support language retention. Moreover, incorporating playful and collaborative activities, such as group work and role-playing, can create a more relaxed atmosphere, encouraging interaction and making language acquisition more effective for these students.

3. Research Projects

These projects have been chosen to be featured here because they represent unique examples of initiatives acknowledged by European authorities that closely relate to the core themes addressed in this lesson.

PRO-Sign

https://www.ecml.at/en/ECML-Programme/Programme-2012-2015/ProSign

The PRO-Sign project adapts the CEFR to sign languages, creating the first European proficiency standards for sign languages, particularly for Deaf Studies and interpreting programs in higher education across Europe and beyond. The website serves as a resource for educators, teacher trainers, and curriculum developers in tertiary education and supports organizations like the European Union of the Deaf (EUD) and the World Federation of the Deaf (WFD). It provides "Can Do" descriptors for sign language skills (reception, interaction, production) across levels from A1 to C2, including "plus levels" (e.g., A2+). As with other CEFR tools, not all sub-categories are covered at every level. The system should be used critically, as the CEFR may need further adaptation for specific contexts. An International Sign (IS) version and assessment framework aligned with the CEFR are also available on the site.

SpreadTheSign

https://www.spreadthesign.com/it.it/search/

SpreadTheSign is an online platform developed in collaboration with Ca’ Foscari University, aimed at promoting sign languages from around the world. It provides video dictionaries, learning resources, and tools for both hearing and Deaf users to explore and learn different sign languages, fostering accessibility and intercultural communication.

LangSkills II

https://www.teiresias.muni.cz/en/veda-a-vyzkum/projects/language-skills-and-learning-preferences-of-deaf

The project Language Skills and Learning Preferences of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students supported by the Teiresias Centre at Masaryk University and funded by the European Union under Key Action 2 of the Erasmus+ programme, was running from November 2021 to October 2024. It aimed to improve the foreign language learning experience for Deaf, deaf, and hard of hearing learners. It focused on identifying learning styles and strategies that can enhance the effectiveness of learning, promoting a more autonomous approach to education. This collaboration between Masaryk University, John Paul II Catholic University, Siena School for Liberal Arts, and supported by EUDY aimed at enhancing foreign language learning for deaf and hard of hearing learners by raising awareness of their learning preferences, leveraging strengths, and promoting self-reflection and autonomy. Its key outcomes include adapted surveys, research on learning strategies, a resource pack, and a best practices bank, all designed to foster better understanding, inclusivity, and improved opportunities for deaf and hard of hearing learners in language education.

The SigHub Project

https://thesignhub.eu/

The SIGN-HUB platform is an innovative and inclusive resource hub for the linguistic, historical and cultural documentation of European sign languages and their Deaf communities' heritage. This platform has been developed during the SIGN-HUB project which was funded by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant Agreement No 693349. If you would like to find out more about the SIGN-HUB project itself and the consortium of institutions and countries that developed this platform, please visit the section “SIGN-HUB Project”. The platform provides four major sections that can be used independently as an information resource for researchers, scholars, teachers, interpreters, and anybody interested in sign languages.

LIS-A project

https://research.uniroma1.it/fis2-lis-constructing-first-european-framework-teaching-and-assessing-italian-sign-language-lis-lis

This FIS project, funded by MUR for the years 2025-2028, aims to develop the LIS-A standardized proficiency test for Italian Sign Language (LIS), addressing the lack of structured assessment tools in Italy. Despite significant advances in sign language research over the past fifty years, LIS teaching and evaluation have mainly relied on informal methods and practitioner insights, which are not systematically grounded. With growing interest in LIS courses across several Italian universities, the need for a formal, reliable assessment framework becomes increasingly important to evaluate and certify learners’ proficiency levels effectively. LIS-A project's main goal is the development of a valid and reliable LIS proficiency exam, from a methodological point of view, as well as a more precise skills definition for LIS professionals, promoting inclusivity and reducing inequalities. Overall, it seeks to establish a structured, fair assessment system aligned with Italy’s changing educational and professional needs.

4. Activities: get inspired

To help learners build vocabulary, sentence structure, and storytelling skills using sign language, spoken and written text independently.

Materials Needed:

Picture cards or storybook with simple sentences
Notebook or digital document for writing
Access to digital sign language vocabulary (e.g., SpreadTheSign)

Activity Steps:

Warm-Up (5-10 mins)

Choose 3–5 picture cards or images with common objects or actions (e.g., a dog running, a child eating).
Look up the corresponding signs for each word using SpreadTheSign https://www.spreadthesign.com/it.it/search/.
Write the word, watch the sign, and say it aloud. Repeat each word 3–5 times.
Optional: Record yourself signing or speaking each word for review.

Building Sentences

Pick one picture card or image.
Create a simple sentence using that image
Break the sentence into individual words and review:
- Vocabulary meaning
- Word order and sentence structure
Practice:
- Sign the sentence
- Speak the sentence aloud
- Write the sentence in your notebook
Repeat with 2–3 more sentences using different images.

Reflection & Wrap-Up

Choose your favorite new word or sentence from the activity.
Write a short story or paragraph using at least 3 new words learned.
Optional: Record a short video signing and speaking your story.

Now try to translate this sentence into a sign language using three steps. This is exemplified in the following for Italian and Italian Sign Language (LIS), but can be adapted to any other language and sign language:

Use LIS signs but follow exactly the spoken Italian grammar and word order, including fingerspelling for grammatical words (articles, prepositions, pronouns, etc.).

Example: Sign each word in the order used in Italian, fingerspell

Now use sign language, maintaining Italian word order and structure, but without the strictness of fingerspelling of small grammatical words.

Translate in a natural Sign Language

Translate the meaning into a sign language using its natural grammar and spatial features (e.g., showing bookcase location through hand position rather than a linear sequence of signs).

Reflect on differences in structure, grammar, and meaning at each step.

5. Take home messages and pedagogical implications

Plurilingualism among deaf and hard of hearing people is multimodal.
Plurilingual education promotes linguistic access, cognitive flexibility, and social inclusion.
Sign languages are full linguistic systems, essential for identity and culture.
Deaf and hard of hearing learners benefit from multimodal and visual teaching strategies.
Collaboration between deaf and hearing educators strengthens the learning environment.
Technological and pedagogical tools should be adapted to each learner’s linguistic background.

6. Self-assessment

Multiple choice quiz

Open reflection

How does plurilingualism influence the identity of deaf and hard of hearing learners?
Which visual and multimodal strategies could improve inclusion in your classroom or learning environment?

7. Resources to go further

Calabrò, L.; Carrazza, M.; Roccaforte, M. (2023). Foreign languages and deafness: how to build up TEFL on deaf students’ strengths and needs Rivista di psicolinguistica applicata. XXIII, 1:2023, pp. 29-46.
Domagala-Zusk, E. (2010) Students with severe hearing impairments as competent learners of English as a second language. Brno, Masaryk University.
European Sign Language Center - Spread the Sign – Erasmus+ KA2 Strategic Partnership 2019–2022. https://www.unive.it/pag/fileadmin/user_upload/ateneo/internazionale/europrogettazione_didattica/risultati-progetti/2014-2020/StrategicPartnerships/2019_KA2_SPREAD.pdf
Rinaldi, P., Tomasuolo, E., & Resca, A. (2018). "La sordità infantile. Nuove prospettive di intervento". Erickson.
Timmermans, N. (Ed.) in co-operation with the Committee on the Rehabilitation and Integration of People with disabilities (CD-P-RR), The status of sign languages in Europe. F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005. ONG, W. J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. London: Routledge, 1982.
World Health Organization. World report on hearing. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021

8. Bibliography

Bettini, V., Battista, C. (1999). Talking Hands: Basic English Course for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Learners. Bologna: Zanichelli.

Calabrò, L.; Carrazza, M.; Roccaforte, M. (2023). Foreign languages and deafness: how to build up TEFL on deaf students’ strengths and needs Rivista di psicolinguistica applicata. XXIII, 1:2023, pp. 29-46.

Council of Europe. (2020). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Companion Volume. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages.

Domagala-Zusk, E. (2010) Students with severe hearing impairments as competent learners of English as a second language. Brno, Masaryk University.

Dotter, F. (2008) English for Deaf sign language users: still a challenge. Bern, Peter Lang.

European Sign Language Center - Spread the Sign – Erasmus+ KA2 Strategic Partnership 2019–2022. https://www.unive.it/pag/fileadmin/user_upload/ateneo/internazionale/europrogettazione_didattica/risultati-progetti/2014-2020/StrategicPartnerships/2019_KA2_SPREAD.pdf

Haug, T.; Keller, J. ESF Exploratory Workshop on Development of Theoretical and Practical Guidelines for the Adaptation of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) to sign languages: Scientific Report. Summary of the European Science Foundation Exploratory Workshop, Zurich, Switzerland, 16-18 September 2011. Zurich, Switzerland, 2012.

Janakova, D. (2005) Teaching English to deaf and hard of hearing students at secondary and tertiary levels of education. Prague, Eurolex

Leeson, L.; Van den Bogarde, B.; Rathmann, C.; Haug, T. Sign languages and the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Common Reference Level Descriptors. Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2016.

Marshark, M., Spencer, P.E. (2016) The Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies in Language. Oxford University Press

Onofrio, D., Rinaldi, P., & Pettenati, P. (2012). "Il primo sviluppo del linguaggio in bambini che imparano più lingue: una proposta per la valutazione e l'interpretazione del profilo linguistico". RIVISTEWEB.ITinica dello Sviluppo, 16(3), 661-670.

Rinaldi, P., Caselli, M. C., Stefanini, S., Bello, A., & Pasqualetti, P. (2019). "From action to spoken and signed language through gesture: Some basic developmental issues for a discussion on the evolution of the human language-ready brain". Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2750.

Rinaldi, P., Tomasuolo, E., & Resca, A. (2018). "La sordità infantile. Nuove prospettive di intervento". Erickson.

Roccaforte, M. (2022). Verso la definizione di un sillabo per la valutazione della competenza linguistica nella lingua dei segni italiana (LIS). Bollettino di italianistica 2/2022, pp. 175-189.

Timmermans, N. (Ed.) in co-operation with the Committee on the Rehabilitation and Integration of People with disabilities (CD-P-RR), The status of sign languages in Europe. F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005. ONG, W. J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. Routledge, 1982.

Trovato, S. (2014). Insegno in segni. Linguaggio, cognizione, successo scolastico per gli studenti sordi. Milano: Raffaello Cortina Editore

Volterra, V., Roccaforte, M., Di Renzo, A., Fontana, S. (2022). Spoken and signed languages between cognition and semiotics. The case of Italian Sign Language. Benjamins

Woll, B. A sign of the times. The New Scientist, v. 27, 2022.

World Health Organization. World report on hearing. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021.

Credits

This resource has been added by Projet PEP (discuss • contribs) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) :

Maria Roccaforte (Sapienza Università di Roma)
Martina Corrazza (Sapienza Università di Roma)