User:Clinton.mcculloch

This user is a participant in the Motivation and emotion unit, 2010. See also: Textbook

This page is an e-portfolio. Also see other participants' pages.

Brain and Physiological Needs/Motivations

This topic examined the biological and neurological basis for motivation in the human brain. I have always found it interesting to distinguish between the human brain and mind, and their unique and fragile relationship. The way in which they interplay with each other when it comes to meeting physiological needs. For example, the amount of energy it takes for the body to register that it is hungry, and for that to register into the awareness of the conscious mind, is simply extraordinary. The base physiological appear to need to be met in order for the individual to NOT experience anxiety - such as

meeting nutritional needs, and performing basic physiological tasks, such as relieving oneself and the role of sex and love; if each need is not met the biological body and brain are more likely to be prone to an anxious state, which then represents itself in the conscious mind in various forms. For example, I know when i get extremely hungry - I am more likely to speak abruptly to someone, even with a sense of anger in my tone, not that it is implied to anyone, but my hunger is manifesting and influencing my conscious mind.

Psychological Needs

The Self-Determination theory suggests that individuals possess two types of motivation: autonomous and controlled. Autonomous motivation occurs when the incentive stems from individual choice, whereas controlled there is generally an external incentive, such as a manager setting a deadline. This makes sense, because when people are set deadlines - there motivation to complete the tasks seems to decrease in comparison to individuals that set there own tasks/deadlines. Autonomous motivations seem to be the most powerful, as they are generally more self-directed. Some activities, although originally motivated extrinsically, might eventually be experienced as manifestations of autonomy. This evolution from extrinsic motivation to autonomy unfolds only if the basic psychological needs of individuals are fulfilled (Ryan & Deci, 2000; cited, http://www.psych-it.com.au/Psychlopedia/article.asp?id=68).

It seems that the more autonomy support an individual has, that is - the more freedom of choice an individual has in their decision making, and the support which enhances and strengthens this freedom - the stronger the motivation.

For example, a students retention rates may be low because he is studying a subject which he doesn't like and can't see any use in. After changing his degree to Music, his retention rates increased dramatically, because he was able to exercise autonomy.

Recipe for a Good Day: Psychological Nutrients

1. To be Challenged - Competence.
2. To feel free - Autonomy.
3. To Interact - Relatedness.

Competence

Daily individuals need to feel that they are competent at performing tasks. This need is often satisfied via positive feedback at the completion of the task.

Autonomy

Daily individuals need to feel free in their decision making, and that they have the 'room' to make free decisions. Studies have shown that the greater support for this in school, at work or at home, or in any social environment, the more satisfying the person will feel.

Relatedness

People thrive from social interaction. By nature we are social beings. Relatedness teaches us that there is a daily psychological need for interaction with others. If this need is not fulfilled, the person may feel unhappy and unsatisfied with life. Relatedness is accomplished by having and partaking in communal relationships.

Social Needs

Psychological processes which group out of social interaction and develop a need relevant incentive.

Examples of social needs:

Achievement and being successful.

Affiliation - having social connections and relationships. Social contact with people, helps to address the sense of competence. External approval helps to feed competence.

Intimacy - Need to fulfil warm sensual need, feeling of closeness.

Power - need to have control over things.

According to MaCallend - These needs are relatively stable. These needs can fluctuate according to the individual. These needs appear to be influenced by upbringing....

Achievement

Causes: Socialised influence families & culture. Having standards of excellence. High goals and standards.

Cognitive Influences: Feelings of competence. Optimists attributional style. Skill Development.

Developmental Influences.

Approach vs Avoidance Motivation

• • High achievement motivated people have high response emotions to challenges.

• • Avoidance motivated people are more likely to be resilient to challenge.

Instigation (approach tendencies) + Inhibition (avoidance tendencies) + Consummation (performing brings cessation) = Ongoing Behaviour.

Affiliation and Intimacy

People that have higher intimacy/affiliation needs generally will have the following attributes:

Warm, caring, funny, loving, touchy, feely.

Many thoughts of friends. Relationships produce positive affects.

Self-disclosure, intense listening.

Power

The desire to be influential in your (social) environment. Eg. CEO's managers, politicians.

Whenever we feel aggressive towards others we are wanting to control others behaviour. These are all forms of power motive.

Power motivators generally will have:

High need for Power, Low need for affiliation, high self-control.

Thinking Question

Do Innate needs always outweigh social needs? What about the need for intimacy and warmth for other over the need for hunger or sex? For Example Women generally perceive intimacy as the best attribute about sex, that sense of being 'close' to one another over the actual pleasure.

Intrinsic-extrinsic motivation and goal-setting

Benefits of Intrinsic Motivation

Higher Persistence

Enhanced Creativity

Conceptual Understanding

Optimal Functioning and Well-being.

Extrinsic Motivation

External incentive to engage in certain type of behaviour. Not based on internal rewards. Doing something 'consequentially'.

Incentive are environmental events that repel or attract somebody to engage in a particular behaviour.

Behaviour is understood in terms of:

Rewards, Incentives and consequences.

Eg. Seeking to establish a business to bring in an income serves as an extrinsic motivator, the income being the incentive.

Punishment is an ineffective strategy for enhancing motivation. Punishment produces 1. Negative relationship between the punisher and the punishee. 2. Negative emotionality is associated with punishment. 3. Negative modelling also occurs and this is particularly relevant for infants and children, where modelling and observational learning is peaking.

Where there is no intrinsic motivation, studies have shown that extrinsic motivation provides more incentives to engage in an undesirable behaviour.

• • Research has revealed that intrinsic motivation is far more effective at promoting behaviours. Extrinsic motivation still undermines the the quality of performance. There is also more likely distraction to take place in regards to the real meaning behind why the behaviours are being encouraged. If people can understand the reason why they are asked to do something, they are more likely to do it effectively, instead of if they didn't know.

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Dissonance occurs between the actual and ideal world. Discrepancy reduction are things that we do to reduce to reduce that discrepancy. Based on feedback and testing. We can also create discrepancy to drive behaviour. May actually intentionally set a difficult goal in order to create discrepancy to motivate us to pursue higher or more difficult behaviours.

Drive reduction is trying to work with the now to try and resolve pre existing discrepancies.

All external events have two functions:

1. Control behaviour 2. Inform competence.

Thinking Question

How does depression impact on goal setting and intrinsic motivation? Depression has been defined as a lack of motivation and hopelessness. Goal setting seems to be damaged in people who are diagnosed with the various forms of depression. Certainly when I have felt down, I have lost interest in achieving any goals.

Goals

Can direct and energise behaviour according to the difficulty and specificity of the goal.

Feedback

Documents the performers progress toward goal attainment. Information, people need to know how close they are. Feedback defines performance and acts as a reinforcer.

***Feedback given in an inappropriate way can serve as a punishment, which undermines effort and reduces intrinsic motivation.

**Feedback is the single most important predictor of achievement.

Variables which influence the goal & Performance model:

- Goal acceptance.

- Goal Choice and autonomy (Ideal goal, actual goal, minimal goal) I.e. reduce cognitive dissonance.

- Short vs Long term goal setting.

Reeve (2009) suggests there are four contributors to goal choice: Ability, past performance, Self-efficacy and Incentives.

Dangers of goal-setting

Increased stress.

Possibility for failure.

Non-goal Areas Ignored.

Short-range Thinking.

Cheating.

Undermines Intrinsic Motivation (because it is externally based motivator).

Thinking Question

People also seem to want their goals immediately, often people will jeopardise their financial circumstances to achieve their goals. I.e. take out a big loan to buy an expensive car. Humans appear to be in a continual need to achieve, consume and attain. Their needs never seem to be fulfilled, rather we appear to be in a constant state of desire over fulfilment. Fulfilment appears to last only short periods, if at all.

Sometimes people feel they are incapable when they actually are intellectually capable. This can be due to the way they perceive themselves- this can undermine behaviour and performance.

Personal Control Beliefs

Model of perceived control (Self (Being Agent) -> Action (being Means) -> Control (Being Ends).

People must feel capable of having control over their environment. People who have a powerful perception of controlling their outcomes will be more likely to perform well and act on their environment.

Things which I find interesting in this topic are:

1. Self-efficacy.

"Ones judgement of how well one will cope with a situation, given the skills one possess and the circumstances one faces. Opposite of self-efficacy is self-doubt."

Self-efficacy involves the perception of the self, of ones ability. This impacts and influences the way we perceive control over the environment. The self-perception of one's capabilities is important variable when it comes to perceived control over the environment.

To me self-efficacy is an important factor in everyday life. It is a cognitively held belief. which means that it can be manipulated and adjusted given the right conditions and redevelopment of perception. To me consciousness also play an important role in this situation. Being aware of ones self, capabilities, casts a realistic perception of ones behaviour. For example, I may realise that I am bad at drawing, but given the right amount of time and practice I know I could retrain my abilities to high standards.

2. Empowerment.

Empowerment is a combination of factors: Self-efficacy beliefs, skills and knowledge. Feeling that one is capable, their skills and knowledge will strengthen or worsen the extent to which people people they have the power to exert perceived control.

I feel empowerment is a really important factor in disadvantaged groups in society. Self-efficacy seems to also be shaped by culture and close socialisation networks, such as family and school.

3. Learned helplessness

"The psychological state that results when an individual expects that life’s outcomes are uncontrollable."

Helpless Motivational Orientation: A fragile view of encounters during encounters of failure. Failure feedback degrades self-efficacy.

In this phenomena, people have suspended their perceived control over their environment, over time. People with learned helplessness

There are three components of learned helplessness:

1. Contingency.

2. Cognition -Subjective personal control beliefs. Biases, attributions, expectancies of ones self. If people have a low expectancy of the self, they are more likely to to feel helpless.

3. Behaviour.

Three effects of learned Helplessness:

1. Motivational deficits - Why try?

2. Learning Deficits - Pessimistic sets of self-beliefs and self-learning capabilities.

3. Emotional Deficits - Energy depleting emotions eg. depression, apathy.

• • I is healthy to have positive illusions of oneself and perceived control.

Our illusions are responsible for the way in which we perceive control over our environment. People with more positive illusions are likely to have greater quality of life, and less evidence of depression.

"With our minds we make the world."

-The Buddha

The Self and its Strivings

Things which I found of interest:

Self-schema

Reflects how we expect ourselves to think, look, behave in a particular situation. Each self schema consists of our perception of our self (eg. shy) and incorporates our experience in this dimension (eg. shy when at parties or in large groups).

Self-schematic: being particularly high or low on a schema. eg. being a student.

Self-awareness

Is developed not instinctual. Pre frontal cortex development.

Private Self Awareness

When an individual temporarily becomes aware of private, personal aspects of self. eg faces in the mirror three important consequences for how people act: 1 Intensified emotional response 2. likely to experience clarification of knowledge. 3. more likely to adhere to personal standards of behaviour.

Public Self-awareness

Arises when a person is aware of public aspects of themselves that can be seen and evaluated by others, for example giving a presentation.

Motivational properties: 1. Consistent Self = self-schemas direct behaviour to confirm self-view. 2. Possible Self - Schemas direct behaviour to move towards a desired future self.

These properties can also cause Cognitive Dissonance, as their to difference in cognitive self-view and actual perception of self-behaviour.

Identities

Identities motivate and direct behaviour. People will often act to ensure their identity is consistent with their behaviour. Eg. A mother will generally engage in motherly behaviours more than others.

Control theory of self-regulation

A cognitive feedback loop which illustrates four steps involved in self regulation: Test, operate, test, exit.

Self schema of hard working -> Test: am I as hard-working as other people on my psychology course? Yes -> Exit, No -> Operate: Spend more time in the library and take more time when writing essays.

Self-regulation

Provides feedback to feed and guide behaviour and motivation i.e. where you are at in achieving the view of your self.

Nature of Emotion

Emotions are an innate and developed part of the human experience. The biological perspective emphasises that emotions are programmed and hard-wired. The Cognitive perspective suggests emotions are developed and modelled over time, particularly the way in which emotions are expressed.

The components of emotion are: Feelings, Bodily arousal, Social-expression and sense of purpose. Emotions are influenced by life events (Reeve, 2009).

Emotions are a motivating factors which energises and directs behaviours.

Emotions are caused by a significant situational life event. This impacts of biological and cognitive process which all enhance the subjective experience of the world (eg. feelings and sense of purpose).

Some emotions lie in the cognitive sphere (aggression and fear), while other emotions arise from experience, observational learning (gratitude and hope).

What good are the emotions ties into this dilemma. Emotions appear to serve coping and social functions. Emotions can assist in protecting, destroy, reproduce, affiliate, reject and orientate us.

Emotions also allow us to communicate our feelings and assist to create and maintain and dissolve social issues and relationships.

Emotions therefore have a functioning body as part of the human condition.

Thinking Question

Emotions influence and direct behaviour. If emotions are an innate, then to a large extent human behaviour is innate and already pre-wired. In order for psychotherapists to alter behaviour, the individual must initially increase awareness of his or her response to situational life events, then alter the course of their emotions into different channels of behaviour. In many cases this would involve emotional suppression and enhancing the rational processing of emotions. Should all of our emotions be controlled by our rational mind? Not all innate behaviour appears to be damaging, For example, having a flight or fright response can sometimes assist people in emergency situations by increasing adrenaline in their bodies to do act in the face of danger.. On the other hand, the flight or fright response can cause enormous anxiety in individual suffering from social anxiety, where immediate danger is not present (at least to observers).

Aspects of Emotion

Thinking Question

I thought the distinction between mood and emotion was really important in this course. Moods are often ill-defined in terms of their direct causes, moods are short lived and can severely influence cognition and perception.Whereas emotions are short lived, are triggered by significant life events and are specific in the impact they have on the mind (eg. aggression, fear ect).

Another things which I found really interesting was how we experience emotions. Emotions are experienced by the mind subjectively. Emotions have a biological as well as a cognitive component, yet how we experience them (anger, sadness) is entirely subjective. Our minds appear to react and respond to the emotions we are experiencing. The mind can act as a suppressing agent, or it can allow the full emotion to be expressed if needed. In some cases it is out of the minds control or awareness, such as in flight or fright responses.

Izard's 10 fundamental emotions theory is also fascinating. Humans are said to have 10 primary emotions which can be broken into 3 categories, positive, neutral and negative. According to Izard, humans have far greater negative emotions than positive or neutral emotions. This would give rise to the fact that humans may need to enhance their ability to control negative emotions more thoroughly.

I also thought it was really interesting that according to cognitive theories of emotions, it is the appraisal of an event that causes/triggers the emotion, not the event itself. Complex appraisal theories are 65-75% accurate. Biology and other processes also contribute to the emotional process.

According to Reeve (2009), they way emotions are processed are created is influenced by the socio-cultural context in which an individual lives. It is also suggested that there is a socio-cultural understanding of emotion. These include things like:

Emotion Expression

Expression Management (Some cultures are much more expressive than others who are more conservative).

Emotion Management (when to control).

Personality and Emotion

The big 5 personality traits consist of Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to experience, Agreeableness and conscientiousness. The thing I found most interesting was that people experience 'emotional highs' when their personality is more extrovert. People are at their peak happiness levels when extroversion is present in their personalities. Conversely, people experience emotional 'lows' in more neurotic personality types.

Extroverts have have a greater access to states of happiness than introverts.

Arousal

People engage in behaviour to decrease or increase their arousal levels.

Under arousal has been shown to severely disrupt cognitive function, physiological function and emotional function (Herron).

Thinking Question

One thing which I found very interesting is that sensation seekers are in a constant state of searching for that novel or high experience. One thing which I can relate very much to in this is something I have studied previously in philosophy; the notion of fulfilment. Human beings seem to be in a constant state of desire rather than fulfilment. Fulfilment only serves as a temporary short lived experience. We are in a constant drive for more, a constant state of hunger, we are never satisfied, never fulfilled. Sensation seeking behaviour appears to be a prime example of this.

Unconscious Motivation

I found this topic the most fascinating of all topics. Things appear to slip through the conscious mind and go into the unconscious mind. This stimuli effect and influence us in ways in which we are not aware.

The Id and the Ego

The Ego seeks to control the Id. The ego is responsible for reducing anxiety caused by interaction with the world. The extent to which the Ego controls the Id produces differences in behaviour and performance. Suppression of all desires will produce a build up of energy in the mind.

The Ego is developed as a defence to anxiety caused by interaction with the environment. Chronic anxiety, depression, stress are all psychological disorders which result in a damaged or weak Ego. The Ego may loose control over desires, or seek to suppress desires, further causing conflict in people minds, and creating vulnerability to further psychological symptoms.

There is validity that more mature defences and flexibility when it comes to dealing with the environment.

The self-perception of the Ego, in terms of capability, really effects the outputting behaviour. We are constantly monitoring the ego's performance, and adjusting to suit its position and fulfilment.

Thinking Question

Interestingly, Buddhist psychology and those on the path to enlightenment seeks to eliminate the ego. This would make sense, as ego is the controlling aspects of desire. This would indicate that the ego is a subjective construct, which has the potential to be overcome and ultimately eliminated. Similarly, the elimination of desire would allow the mind to be free of the need to fulfil, this also ties in with the previous Weeks readings on sensation seeking and fulfilment.

"In most minds the Ego dominates behaviour, or at least is always present in the mind. Mindfulness enhances self-awareness of the Ego and desires. Being mindful allows one to consciously monitor the events of the mind, ones behaviour and ones reaction and interaction with the environment. These theories require further empirical investigation, nevertheless they do suggest a way to be reflective of the minds content, reactions and behaviour."

Growth Motivation and Positive Psychology

Most people live—whether physically, intellectually or morally—in a very restricted circle of their potential being. We all have reservoirs of life to draw upon of which we do not dream.

- William James

People who pay more attention to personal growth and move towards advancement are more likely to suffer less psychological problems throughout their lives.

Holism focuses on discovering human potential and encouraging its development.

Positive psychology Seeks to make people stronger and more productive, and to actualise the human potential in all of us.

Maslow (1987) defined Self-actualisation as "an ever-fuller realisation of one’s talents, capacities, and potentialities".

Positive psychology has committed itself to scientific testing.

Thinking Question

One things that is fascinating about this area of psychology is what Reeve points out, Encouraging growth is abut giving up defences (ego defences). Interestingly, Buddhist and Vedanta psychology has stressed this for over 6,000 years.

Carl Rogers has been a pioneer in this field, particularly in counselling individuals. His theory on counselling is based on creating a relationship with the individual which allows him or her to grow, to realise and to act on behalf of this reflection. Rogers also emphasised the importance creating a positive relationship with the client, one which encouraged self-growth and development. I find this area very interesting, it is something I would like to pursue more thoroughly.

Being not afraid of anxiety.

Vulnerabilities to Mental Health Problems are caused by two components.

Validation Seeking

Validation seeking is striving for self-worth. Being able to demonstrate competence (eg. at school or work)

Growth Seeking

Striving for improving and growing.

Quotes which I find interesting:

Evil is not an inherent human tendency.

Thinking Question

I cannot help to comment on the relate-ability here of enlightenment (Buddhist and Hindu) and positive psychology. The goal of positive psychology is reaching a Eudamonic state of well being, or self-realisation. The goal of enlightenment at least physically is Nirvana, Brahman: pure realisation or awareness. I feel we have much to learn from the Vedanta sciences and Buddhist psychology, and warrants further empirical investigation.