Radiation satellites

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This is an artist's rendering of the Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) satellite. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Conceptual Image Lab.
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Radiation satellites may be designed and built for detection in one particular radiation astronomy or for many. Some have been built for more than one purpose or for a different purpose entirely.

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To place sensors (or detectors) above the Earth’s atmosphere is often a necessity for radiation astronomy. “The sensors at once lose the basic advantage of both radio and optical telescopes, a rigid, well-surveyed foundation upon a well-behaved earth.”[1] “The source locations, therefore, reflect uncertainties in both the sensor data and in vehicle aspect.”[1]

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Contents

Notation [edit]

Notation: let the symbol Def. indicate that a definition is following.

Notation: let the symbols between [ and ] be replacement for that portion of a quoted text.

Universals [edit]

To help with definitions, their meanings and intents, there is the learning resource theory of definition.

Def. evidence that demonstrates that a concept is possible is called proof of concept.

The proof-of-concept structure consists of

  1. background,
  2. procedures,
  3. findings, and
  4. interpretation.[2]

The findings demonstrate a statistically systematic change from the status quo or the control group.

Astronomy [edit]

Radiation [edit]

Planetary science [edit]

Theoretical radiation satellites [edit]

Sources [edit]

Satellites [edit]

Def. “[a] man-made apparatus designed to be placed in orbit around a celestial body, generally to relay information, data etc. to Earth”[3] is called a satellite.

Meteor astronomy [edit]

Cosmic-ray astronomy [edit]

In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.
This diagram shows the mounting of PAMELA on the Resurs-DK1 satellite. Credit: -=HyPeRzOnD=- as modified by Aldebaran66.

The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer "is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays."[4]

"About 1,000 cosmic rays are recorded by the instrument per second, generating about one GB/sec of data. This data is filtered and compressed to about 300 KB/sec for download to the operation centre POCC at CERN. In July 2012, it was reported that AMS-02 had observed over 18 billion cosmic rays.[5]"[4]

The Payload for Antimatter Matter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics (PAMELA) "is an operational cosmic ray research module attached to"[6] the Resurs-DK1 commercial Earth observation satellite. PAMELA "is the first satellite-based experiment dedicated to the detection of cosmic rays, with a particular focus on their antimatter component, in the form of positrons and antiprotons. Other objectives include long-term monitoring of the solar modulation of cosmic rays, measurements of energetic particles from the Sun, high-energy particles in Earth's magnetosphere and Jovian electrons."[6]

"The instrument is built around a permanent magnet spectrometer with a silicon microstrip tracker that provides rigidity and dE/dx information. At its bottom is a silicon-tungsten imaging calorimeter, a neutron detector and a shower tail scintillator to perform lepton/hadron discrimination. A Time of Flight (ToF), made of three layers of plastic scintillators, is used to measure the beta and charge of the particle. An anticounter system made of scintillators surrounding the apparatus is used to reject false triggers and albedo particles during off-line analysis.[7]"[6]

Neutron astronomy [edit]

The neutron spectrometer (NS) aboard the Lunar Prospector is "designed to detect minute amounts of water ice which [are] believed to exist on the Moon. It [is] capable of detecting water ice at a level of less than 0.01%. ... The neutron spectrometer [is] a thin cylinder ... at the end of one of the three radial Lunar Prospector science booms. The instrument [has] a surface resolution of 150 km ... The neutron spectrometer consisted of two canisters each containing helium-3 and an energy counter. Any neutrons colliding with the helium atoms give an energy signature which can be detected and counted. One of the canisters [is] wrapped in cadmium, and one in tin. The cadmium screens out thermal (low energy or slow-moving) neutrons, while the tin does not. Thermal neutrons are cosmic-ray-generated neutrons which have lost much of their energy in collisions with hydrogen atoms. Differences in the counts between the two canisters indicate the number of thermal neutrons detected, which in turn indicates the amount of hydrogen on the Moon's crust at a given location. Large quantities of hydrogen would likely be due to the presence of water."[8]

Proton astronomy [edit]

This image shows the IBEX (photo cells forward) being surrounded by its protective nose cone. Credit: NASA (John F. Kennedy Space Center).
A hot plasma ion 'steals' charge from a cold neutral atom to become an Energetic Neutral Atom (ENA).[9] Credit Mike Gruntman.
The ENA leaves the charge exchange in a straight line with the velocity of the original plasma ion.[9] Credit: Mike Gruntman.
This image is an all-sky map of neutral atoms streaming in from the interstellar boundary. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio.

"The sensors on the IBEX spacecraft are able to detect energetic neutral atoms (ENAs) at a variety of energy levels."[10]

"The satellite's payload consists of two energetic neutral atom (ENA) imagers, IBEX-Hi and IBEX-Lo. Each of these sensors consists of a collimator that limits their fields-of-view, a conversion surface to convert neutral hydrogen and oxygen into ions, an electrostatic analyzer (ESA) to suppress ultraviolet light and to select ions of a specific energy range, and a detector to count particles and identify the type of each ion."[11]

"IBEX–Lo can detect particles with energies ranging from 10 electron–volts to 2,000 electron–volts (0.01 keV to 2 keV) in 8 separate energy bands. IBEX–Hi can detect particles with energies ranging from 300 electron–volts to 6,000 electron–volts (.3 keV to 6 keV) in 6 separate energy bands. ... Looking across the entire sky, interactions occurring at the edge of our Solar System produce ENAs at different energy levels and in different amounts, depending on the process."[10]

"Proton–hydrogen charge-exchange collisions [such as those shown at right] are often the most important process in space plasma because [h]ydrogen is the most abundant constituent of both plasmas and background gases and hydrogen charge-exchange occurs at very high velocities involving little exchange of momentum."[12]

"Energetic neutral atoms (ENA), emitted from the magnetosphere with energies of ∼50 keV, have been measured with solid-state detectors on the IMP 7/8 and ISEE 1 spacecraft. The ENA are produced when singly charged trapped ions collide with the exospheric neutral hydrogen geocorona and the energetic ions are neutralized by charge exchange."[13]

"The IMAGE mission ... High Energy Neutral Atom imager (HENA) ... images [ENAs] at energies between 10 and 60 keV/nucleon [to] reveal the distribution and the evolution of energetic [ions, including protons] as they are injected into the ring current during geomagnetic storms, drift about the Earth on both open and closed drift paths, and decay through charge exchange to pre‐storm levels."[14]

"In 2009, NASA's Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) mission science team constructed the first-ever all-sky map [at right] of the interactions occurring at the edge of the solar system, where the sun's influence diminishes and interacts with the interstellar medium. A 2013 paper provides a new explanation for a giant ribbon of energetic neutral atoms – shown here in light green and blue -- streaming in from that boundary."[15]

"[T]he boundary at the edge of our heliosphere where material streaming out from the sun interacts with the galactic material ... emits no light and no conventional telescope can see it. However, particles from inside the solar system bounce off this boundary and neutral atoms from that collision stream inward. Those particles can be observed by instruments on NASA’s Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX). Since those atoms act as fingerprints for the boundary from which they came, IBEX can map that boundary in a way never before done. In 2009, IBEX saw something in that map that no one could explain: a vast ribbon dancing across this boundary that produced many more energetic neutral atoms than the surrounding areas."[15]

""What we are learning with IBEX is that the interaction between the sun's magnetic fields and the galactic magnetic field is much more complicated than we previously thought," says Eric Christian, the mission scientist for IBEX at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. "By modifying an earlier model, this paper provides the best explanation so far for the ribbon IBEX is seeing.""[15]

Electron astronomy [edit]

This is an image of the Energetic Particles Detector (EPD) aboard the Galileo Orbiter. Credit: NASA.

The Energetic Particles Detector (EPD) aboard the Galileo Orbiter is "designed to measure the numbers and energies of ... electrons whose energies exceed about 20 keV ... The EPD [can] also measure the direction of travel of [electrons] ... The EPD [uses] silicon solid state detectors and a time-of-flight detector system to measure changes in the energetic [electron] population at Jupiter as a function of position and time."[16]

"[The] two bi-directional, solid-state detector telescopes [are] mounted on a platform which [is] rotated by a stepper motor into one of eight positions. This rotation of the platform. combined with the spinning of the orbiter in a plane perpendicular to the platform rotation, [permits] a 4-pi [or 4π] steradian coverage of incoming [electrons]. The forward (0 degree) ends of the two telescopes [have] an unobstructed view over the [4π] sphere or [can] be positioned behind a shield which not only [prevents] the entrance of incoming radiation, but [contains] a source, thus allowing background corrections and in-flight calibrations to be made. ... The 0 degree end of the [Low-Energy Magnetospheric Measurements System] LEMMS [uses] magnetic deflection to separate incoming electrons and ions. The 180 degree end [uses] absorbers in combination with the detectors to provide measurements of higher-energy electrons ... The LEMMS [provides] measurements of electrons from 15 keV to greater than 11 MeV ... in 32 rate channels."[17]

"The electron reflectometer (ER) [aboard the Lunar Prospector determines] the location and strength of magnetic fields from the energy spectrum and direction of electrons. The instrument [measures] the pitch angles of solar wind electrons reflected from the Moon by lunar magnetic fields. Stronger local magnetic fields can reflect electrons with larger pitch angles. Field strengths as small as 0.01 [nanotesla] nT could be measured with a spatial accuracy of about {3 km (1.9 mi) at the lunar surface. ... The ER ... [is] located at the end of one of the three radial science booms on [the] Lunar Prospector."[8]

Positron astronomy [edit]

Neutrino astronomy [edit]

Gamma-ray astronomy [edit]

X-ray astronomy [edit]

Solrad 1 is the small satellite with its antenna folded upward. Transit 2A is beneath. Credit: United States Naval Research Laboratory.

"AGILE (Astro-rivelatore Gamma a Immagini LEggero) is an X--ray and Gamma ray astronomical satellite of the Italian Space Agency (ASI). [The] AGILE mission is ... to [observe] Gamma-Ray sources in the universe. ... AGILE’s instrumentation combines a gamma-ray imager (GRID) (sensitive in the energy range 30 MeV-50 GeV), a hard X-ray imager and monitor: Super-AGILE (sensitive in the range 18-60 KeV), a calorimeter (sensitive in the range 350 KeV-100 MeV) (MCAL), and an anticoincidence system (AC), based on plastic scintillator. AGILE was successfully launched on [April 23,] 2007".[18]

“The SOLar RADiation satellite program (SOLRAD) was conceived in the late 1950s to study the Sun's effects on Earth, particularly during periods of heightened solar activity.[19] Solrad 1 is launched on June 22, 1960, aboard a Thor Able from Cape Canaveral at 1:54 a.m. EDT. As the world's first orbiting astronomical observatory, Solrad 1 determined that radio fade-outs were caused by solar X-ray emissions.[19]"[20]

Ultraviolet astronomy [edit]

Optical astronomy [edit]

The Hubble Space Telescope is seen from the departing Space Shuttle Atlantis, flying Servicing Mission 4 (STS-125), the fifth and final human spaceflight to visit the observatory. Credit: Ruffnax (Crew of STS-125).
Polishing of Hubble's primary mirror begins at Perkin-Elmer corporation, Danbury, Connecticut, March 1979. The engineer pictured is Dr. Martin Yellin, an optical engineer working for Perkin-Elmer on the project.
This diagram is an exploded view of the HST. Credit: AndrewBuck.

The Hubble Space Telescope is an excellent example of a radiation satellite designed for more than one purpose: the various astronomies of optical astronomy.

“Hubble's four main instruments observe in the near ultraviolet, visible, and near infrared. ... Hubble's Ultra-Deep Field image, for instance, is the most detailed visible-light image ever made of the universe's most distant objects. ... Hubble is the only telescope designed to be serviced in space by astronauts. ... Optically, the HST is a Cassegrain reflector of Ritchey-Chrétien design, as are most large professional telescopes. This design, with two hyperbolic mirrors, is known for good imaging performance over a wide field of view, with the disadvantage that the mirrors have shapes that are hard to fabricate and test. The mirror and optical systems of the telescope determine the final performance, and they were designed to exacting specifications.”[21]

“Optical telescopes typically have mirrors polished to an accuracy of about a tenth of the wavelength of visible light, but the Space Telescope was to be used for observations from the visible through the ultraviolet (shorter wavelengths) and was specified to be diffraction limited to take full advantage of the space environment. Therefore its mirror needed to be polished to an accuracy of 10 nanometers, or about 1/65 of the wavelength of red light.[22] On the long wavelength end, the OTA was not designed with optimum IR performance in mind — for example, the mirrors are kept at stable (and warm, about 15 °C) temperatures by heaters. This limits Hubble's performance as an infrared telescope.[23]”[21]

The HST is an optical astronomy telescope that “incorporated a set of 48 filters isolating spectral lines of particular astrophysical interest. The instrument contained eight charge-coupled device (CCD) chips divided between two cameras, each using four CCDs. The "wide field camera" (WFC) covered a large angular field at the expense of resolution, while the "planetary camera" (PC) took images at a longer effective focal length than the WF chips, giving it a greater magnification.[24] The GHRS was a spectrograph designed to operate in the ultraviolet. It was built by the Goddard Space Flight Center and could achieve a spectral resolution of 90,000.[25] Also optimized for ultraviolet observations were the FOC and FOS, which were capable of the highest spatial resolution of any instruments on Hubble. Rather than CCDs these three instruments used photon-counting digicons as their detectors. ... The final instrument was the HSP, designed and built at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. It was optimized for visible and ultraviolet light observations of variable stars and other astronomical objects varying in brightness. It could take up to 100,000 measurements per second with a photometric accuracy of about 2% or better.[26]”[21]

“HST's guidance system can also be used as a scientific instrument. Its three Fine Guidance Sensors (FGS) are primarily used to keep the telescope accurately pointed during an observation, but can also be used to carry out extremely accurate astrometry; measurements accurate to within 0.0003 arcseconds have been achieved.[27]”[21]

Visual astronomy [edit]

Violet astronomy [edit]

Blue astronomy [edit]

Cyan astronomy [edit]

Green astronomy [edit]

This image shows the narrow angle camera (NAC) of Cassini's Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS). Credit: NASA/JPL.
This image shows the wide angle camera (WAC) of Cassini's Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS). Credit: NASA/JPL.
The image shows Dawn prior to encapsulation at its launch pad on July 1, 2007. Credit: NASA/Amanda Diller.

The Cassini Orbiter spacecraft that is in orbit around Saturn has two science telescopes observing in the green. The Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) has a narrow angle camera (NAC) and a wide angle camera (WAC). The NAC uses a reflecting telescope and the WAC uses a refractor. The NAC on Cassini has a green filter centered at 568 nanometers. The WAC has a 567 nm centroid.[28] Overall the camera observes a wavelength range of 200-1100 nm and has 24 filters [on two wheels] with a 6.0 microradians per pixel angular resolution.[29]

The wide angle camera detects a wavelength range from 380-1100 nm using 18 filters [on two wheels] and has a 60 microradians per pixel angular resolution.[29]

"The Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS) is a pair of imaging grating spectrometers designed to measure reflected and emitted radiation from atmospheres, rings, and surfaces over wavelengths from 0.35 to 5.1 micrometers to determine their compositions, temperatures, and structures. ... The visible channel (VIMS-V) is an opto-mechanical assembly designed to produce multispectral images in the visible range. It consists of a Shafer telescope, a holographic spectrometer grating, and a silicon CCD area array focal plane detector cooled to its required temperature by a passive radiator. The VIMS-V will be configured as a "pushbroom" imager, which means that the optical instrument's IFOV is an entire line of pixels. This is scanned over the scene with a single-axis scanning mirror to produce a series of contiguous rows, which together form a two-dimensional image. ... The visible channel has 96 channels covering the wavelength range from 0.35 to 1.07 µm."[30]

The Hubble Space Telescope has used three cameras to capture green images: the wide field planetary camera 1 (PC-1), the wide field planetary camera 2 (PC-2), and the wide field camera 3 (WCF3).

The Galileo spacecraft uses a 559 nm green filter.

The Rosetta Spacecraft has two instruments aboard that use green astronomy: the Optical, Spectroscopic, and Infrared Remote Imaging System (OSIRIS) and the Visible and Infrared Thermal Imaging Spectrometer (VIRTIS).

For OSIRIS, "[t]he camera system has a narrow-angle lens (700 mm) and a wide-angle lens (140 mm), with a 2048x2048 pixel CCD chip."[31]"[32]

"The Visible and IR spectrometer is able to make pictures of the core in the IR and also search for IR spectra of molecules in the coma. The detection is done by a mercury cadmium teluride array for IR and with a CCD chip for the Visible range. ... improved versions were used for Dawn and Venus express.[33]"[32]

The Dawn spacecraft has onboard a framing camera (FC) with a refractive optical system and an 8-position filter wheel of a panchromatic (clear filter) and seven narrow band filters.[34] "The visual and infrared spectrometer (VIR) ... [has] an array of HgCdTe photodiodes cooled to about 70K spans the spectrum from 0.95 to 5.0 µm.[35][36]"[34] The green filter aboard Dawn in the FC has a central wavelength of 555 nm.[37] The VIR on Dawn has a green filter centered at 563 nm.[38]

"VMC: The Venus Monitoring Camera is a wide-angle, multi-channel CCD. The VMC is designed for global imaging of the planet.[39] It operates in the visible, ultraviolet, and near infrared spectral ranges, and maps surface brightness distribution searching for volcanic activity, monitoring airglow, studying the distribution of unknown ultraviolet absorbing phenomenon at the cloud-tops, and making other science observations."[40]

"VIRTIS: The "Visible and Infrared Thermal Imaging Spectrometer" (VIRTIS) is an imaging spectrometer that observes in the near-ultraviolet, visible, and infrared parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. It will analyze all layers of the atmosphere, surface temperature and surface/atmosphere interaction phenomena."[40]

Yellow astronomy [edit]

Orange astronomy [edit]

Red astronomy [edit]

Infrared astronomy [edit]

Submillimeter astronomy [edit]

Radio astronomy [edit]

Superluminal astronomy [edit]

See also [edit]

References [edit]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Gerald A. Ouellette (June 1967). "Development of a Catalogue of Galactic X-Ray Sources". The Astronomical Journal 72 (5): 597-600. doi:10.1086/110278. Bibcode: 1967AJ.....72..597O. Retrieved on 2012-03-17. 
  2. ↑ Ginger Lehrman and Ian B Hogue, Sarah Palmer, Cheryl Jennings, Celsa A Spina, Ann Wiegand, Alan L Landay, Robert W Coombs, Douglas D Richman, John W Mellors, John M Coffin, Ronald J Bosch, David M Margolis (August 13, 2005). "Depletion of latent HIV-1 infection in vivo: a proof-of-concept study". Lancet 366 (9485): 549-55. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67098-5. Retrieved on 2012-05-09. 
  3. ↑ (June 19, 2012) "satellite". Wiktionary. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved on 2012-08-10. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 (August 4, 2012) "Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer". Wikipedia. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved on 2012-08-10. 
  5. ↑ Script error
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 (February 1, 2012) "Payload for Antimatter Matter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics". Wikipedia. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved on 2012-08-10. 
  7. ↑ P.Picozza et al., "Launch of the space experiment PAMELA", http://arxiv.org/abs/0708.1808
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 (August 12, 2012) "Lunar Prospector". Wikipedia. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved on 2012-08-12. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Script error
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Script error
  11. ↑ (May 13, 2012) "Interstellar Boundary Explorer". Wikipedia. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved on 2012-08-11. 
  12. ↑ (August 4, 2012) "Energetic neutral atom". Wikipedia. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved on 2012-08-12. 
  13. ↑ E. C. Roelof, D. G. Mitchell, D. J. Williams (1985). "Energetic neutral atoms (E ∼ 50 keV) from the ring current: IMP 7/8 and ISEE 1". Journal of Geophysical Research 90 (A11): 10,991-11,008. doi:10.1029/JA090iA11p10991. Retrieved on 2012-08-12. 
  14. ↑ D. G. Mitchell, K. C. Hsieh, C. C. Curtis, D. C. Hamilton, H. D. Voes, E. C, Roelof, P. C:son-Brandt (2001). "Imaging two geomagnetic storms in energetic neutral atoms". Geophysical Research Letters 28 (6): 1151-4. doi:10.1029/2000GL012395. Retrieved on 2012-08-12. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Script error
  16. ↑ (August 7, 2012) "Galileo (spacecraft)". Wikipedia. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved on 2012-08-11. 
  17. ↑ Script error
  18. ↑ (April 11, 2012) "AGILE (satellite)". Wikipedia. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved on 2012-08-10. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Script error
  20. ↑ "X-ray astronomy satellites". Wikipedia. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved on 2012-08-10. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 (January 21, 2013) "Hubble Space Telescope". Wikipedia. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved on 2013-01-22. 
  22. ↑ Script error
  23. ↑ Robberto, M. and Sivaramakrishnan, A. and Bacinski, J.J. and Calzetti, D. and Krist, J.E. and MacKenty, J.W. and Piquero, J. and Stiavelli, M. (2000). "The Performance of HST as an Infrared Telescope" (PDF). Proc. SPIE 4013: 386–393. doi:10.1117/12.394037. 
  24. ↑ Donald N.B. Hall, ed (1982). The Space Telescope Observatory. NASA. http://hdl.handle.net/2060/19820025420.  40 MB PDF file.
  25. ↑ Brandt J.C. (1994). "The Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph: Instrument, goals, and science results". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 106: 890–908. doi:10.1086/133457. Bibcode: 1994PASP..106..890B. 
  26. ↑ Bless R.C., Walter L.E., White R.L. (1992), High Speed Photometer Instrument Handbook, v 3.0, STSci
  27. ↑ Benedict, G. Fritz; McArthur, Barbara E. (2005). D.W. Kurtz. ed. High-precision stellar parallaxes from Hubble Space Telescope fine guidance sensors, In: Transits of Venus: New Views of the Solar System and Galaxy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 333–46. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005tvnv.conf..333B. 
  28. ↑ Carolyn C. Porco, Robert A. West, Steven Squyres, Alfred McEwen, Peter Thomas, Carl D. Murrays, Anthony Delgenio, Andrew P. Ingersoll, Torrence V. Johnson, Gerhard Neukumb, Joseph Veverka, Luke Dones, Andre Brahic, Joseph A. Burns, Vance Haemmerle, Benjamin Knowles, Douglas Dawson, Thomas Roatsch, Kevin Beurles and William Owen (December 2004). "Cassini Imaging Science: Instrument Characteristics and Anticipated Scientific Investigations at Saturn". Space Science Reviews 115 (1-4): 363-497. doi:10.1007/s11214-004-1456-7. Bibcode: 2004SSRv..115..363P. Retrieved on 2013-01-26. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Script error
  30. ↑ Script error
  31. ↑ Thomas., N.; Keller, H. U.; Arijs, E.; Barbieri, C.; Grande, M.; Lamy, P.; Rickman, H.; Rodrigo, R.; Wenzel, K.-P.; A'Hearn, M. F.; Angrilli, F.; Bailey, M.; Barucci, M. A.; Bertaux, J.-L.; Brieß, K.; Burns, J. A.; Cremonese, G.; Curdt, W.; Deceuninck, H.; Emery, R.; Festou, M.; Fulle, M.; Ip, W.-H.; Jorda, L.; Korth, A.; Koschny, D.; Kramm, J.-R.; Kührt, E.; Lara, L. M.; Llebaria, A.; Lopez-Moreno, J. J.; Marzari, F.; Moreau, D.; Muller, C.; Murray, C.; Naletto, G.; Nevejans, D.; Ragazzoni, R.; Sabau, L.; Sanz, A.; Sivan, J.-P.; Tondello, G. (1998). "OSIRIS-the optical, spectroscopic and infrared remote imaging system for the Rosetta Orbiter". Advances in Space Research 21 (11): 1505–15. doi:10.1016/S0273-1177(97)00943-5. Bibcode: 1998AdSpR..21.1505T. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 (January 17, 2013) "Rosetta (spacecraft)". Wikipedia. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved on 2013-01-26. 
  33. ↑ Coradini, A.; Capaccioni, F.; Capria, M. T.; Cerroni, P.; de Sanctis, M. C.; Magni, G.; Reininger, F.; Drossart, P.; Barucci, M. A.; Bockelee-Morvan, D.; Combes, M.; Crovisier, J.; Encrenaz, T.; Tiphene, D.; Arnold, G.; Carsenty, U.; Michaelis, H.; Mottola, S.; Neukum, G.; Schade, U.; Taylor, F.; Calcutt, S.; Vellacott, T.; Venters, P.; Watkins, R. E.; Bellucci, G.; Formisano, V.; Angrilli, F.; Bianchini, G.; Saggin, B.; Bussoletti, E.; Colangeli, L.; Mennella, V.; Fonti, S.; Tozzi, G.; Bibring, J. P.; Langevin, Y.; Schmitt, B.; Combi, M.; Fink, U.; McCord, T.; Ip, W.; Carlson, R. W.; Jennings, D. E.. "VIRTIS Visible Infrared Thermal Imaging Spectrometer for Rosetta Mission". Lunar and Planetary Science 27. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 (January 6, 2013) "Dawn (spacecraft)". Wikipedia. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved on 2013-01-26. 
  35. ↑ Rayman, Marc; Fraschetti, Raymond, Russell (5). "Dawn: A mission in development for exploration of main belt asteroids Vesta and Ceres". Acta Astronautica 58 (11): 605–16. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2006.01.014. Bibcode: 2006AcAau..58..605R. Retrieved on 14 April 2011. 
  36. ↑ (2010) "The VIR Spectrometer". Space Science Reviews. doi:10.1007/s11214-010-9668-5. Bibcode: 2010SSRv..tmp..103D. 
  37. ↑ B. W. Denevi, E. I. Coman, U. Carsenty, D. T. Blewett, D. W. Mittlefehldt, D. L. Buczkowski, J.-P. Combe, M. T. Capria, M. C. De Sanctis, R. Jaumann, J-Y. Li, S. Marchi, A. Nathues, N. E. Petro, C. M. Pieters, P. Schenk, N. Schmedemann, S. Schröder, J. M. Sunshine, M. Toplis, D. A. Williams, C. A. Raymond, and C. T. Russell (August 13, 2012). "Global Variations in Regolith Depth on Asteroid Vesta". European Planetary Science Congress Abstracts 7: 2. Retrieved on 2013-01-26. 
  38. ↑ Script error
  39. ↑ Script error
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 (December 3, 2012) "Venus Express". Wikipedia. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved on 2013-01-26. 

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Analytical astronomy · Ariel · Astrognosy · Astronomical observatories · Astronomy · Astrophysics · Atmospheric astronomy · Balloons for astronomy · Blue astronomy · Callisto · Ceres · Classical planets · Coronal cloud · Cosmic-ray astronomy · Cosmogony · Crater astronomy · Cyan astronomy · Early telescope · Electron astronomy · Empirical astronomy · Empirical radiation astronomy · Entity astronomy · Europa · First astronomical source · First astronomical X-ray source · Galaxies · Gamma-ray astronomy · Ganymede · Gaseous-object astronomy · Green astronomy · Heliognosy · Heliogony · Heliography · Heliology · Heliometry · Heliophysics · Heliosphere · Infrared astronomy · Intergalactic medium · Interplanetary medium · Interstellar medium · Io · Kuiper belt · Liquid-object astronomy · Lofting technology · Magnetohydrodynamics · Mathematical astronomy · Meteor astronomy · Meteorites · Miranda · Muon astronomy · Neptune · Neutrino astronomy · Neutron astronomy · Nucleosynthesis · Object astronomy · Oort cloud · Optical astronomy · Orange astronomy · Planetary astronomy · Planetary science · Plasma-object astronomy · Positron astronomy · Proton astronomy · Radiation · Radiation astronomy · Radiation chemistry · Radiation detectors · Radiation entities · Radiation geography · Radiation history · Radiation mathematics · Radiation physics · Radiation satellites · Radiation telescopes · Radiative dynamo · Radio astronomy · Red astronomy · Regional astronomy · Rocky-object astronomy · Scattered disc · Solar astronomy · Solar binary · Sounding rockets for astronomy · Source astronomy · Standard candles · Standard solar model · Star fission · Star-forming region · Stellar active region · Stellar astronomy · Stellar science · Stellar surface fusion · Submillimeter astronomy · Sun · Sun as an X-ray source · Superluminal astronomy · Theoretical astronomy · Theoretical radiation astronomy · Titan · Titania · Triton · Ultraviolet astronomy · Uranus · Vesta · Violet astronomy · Visual astronomy · X-ray astronomy · X-ray classification of stars · Yellow astronomy
Lessons
Lists
Problem sets
Projects
Quizzes

Analytical astronomy/Quiz · Astrognosy/Quiz · Astronomical observatories/Quiz · Astronomy/Quiz · Astrophysics/Quiz · Atmospheric astronomy/Quiz · Balloons for astronomy/Quiz · Blue astronomy/Quiz · Classical planets/Quiz Coronal cloud/Quiz · Cosmic-ray astronomy/Quiz · Cosmogony/Quiz · Crater astronomy/Quiz · Cyan astronomy/Quiz · Early telescope/Quiz · Electron astronomy/Quiz · Empirical astronomy/Quiz · Entity astronomy/Quiz · First astronomical source/Quiz · First astronomical X-ray source/Quiz · Galaxies/Quiz · Gamma-ray astronomy/Quiz · Gaseous-object astronomy/Quiz · Green astronomy/Quiz · Heliognosy/Quiz · Heliogony/Quiz · Heliography/Quiz · Heliology/Quiz · Heliometry/Quiz · Heliophysics/Quiz · Infrared astronomy/Quiz · Intergalactic medium/Quiz · Interplanetary medium/Quiz · Interstellar medium/Quiz · Liquid-object astronomy/Quiz · Lofting technology/Quiz · Magnetohydrodynamics/Quiz · Mathematical astronomy/Quiz · Meteor astronomy/Quiz · Meteorites/Quiz · Muon astronomy/Quiz · Neptune/Quiz · Neutrino astronomy/Quiz · Neutron astronomy/Quiz · Nucleosynthesis/Quiz · Object astronomy/Quiz · Optical astronomy/Quiz · Orange astronomy/Quiz · Planetary astronomy/Quiz · Planetary science/Quiz · Plasma astronomy/Quiz · Positron astronomy/Quiz · Proton astronomy/Quiz · Radiation/Quiz · Radiation astronomy/Quiz · Radiation chemistry/Quiz · Radiation detectors/Quiz · Radiation entities/Quiz · Radiation geography/Quiz · Radiation history/Quiz · Radiation mathematics/Quiz · Radiation physics/Quiz · Radiation satellites/Quiz · Radiation telescopes/Quiz · Radiative dynamo/Quiz · Radio astronomy/Quiz · Red astronomy/Quiz · Regional astronomy/Quiz · Rocky-object astronomy/Quiz · Solar astronomy/Quiz · Solar binary/Quiz · Sounding rockets for astronomy/Quiz · Source astronomy/Quiz · Standard candles/Quiz · Standard solar model/Quiz · Star fission/Quiz · Star-forming region/Quiz · Stellar active region/Quiz · Stellar astronomy/Quiz · Stellar science/Quiz · Stellar surface fusion/Quiz · Submillimeter astronomy/Quiz · Sun as an X-ray source/Quiz · Sun/Quiz · Superluminal astronomy/Quiz · Theoretical astronomy/Quiz · Theoretical radiation astronomy/Quiz · Ultraviolet astronomy/Quiz · Uranus/Quiz · Violet astronomy/Quiz · Visual astronomy/Quiz · X-ray astronomy/Quiz · X-ray classification of stars/Quiz · X-ray trigonometric parallax/Quiz · Yellow astronomy/Quiz
Topics
v · d · e
Principles of radiation astronomy
Lectures

Astronomy · Planetary science · Mathematical astronomy · Theoretical astronomy · Source astronomy · Radiation · Radiation astronomy · Radiation detectors · Radiation telescopes · Radiation satellites · Theoretical radiation astronomy · Astrophysics · Cosmic-ray astronomy · Neutron astronomy · Proton astronomy · Electron astronomy · Positron astronomy · Neutrino astronomy · Gamma-ray astronomy · X-ray astronomy · Ultraviolet astronomy · Optical astronomy · Visual astronomy · Violet astronomy · Blue astronomy · Cyan astronomy · Green astronomy · Yellow astronomy · Orange astronomy · Red astronomy · Infrared astronomy · Submillimeter astronomy · Radio astronomy · Superluminal astronomy · Lofting technology · Sun as an X-ray source · X-ray classification of stars · Coronal cloud · Radiative dynamo · Radiation chemistry · Radiation geography · Radiation history · Radiation entities · Radiation mathematics · Solar binary · Star fission · Star-forming region · Stellar active region
Laboratories
Lessons
Problem sets
Quizz section minilectures

Analytical astronomy · Astrognosy · Astronomical observatories · Atmospheric astronomy · Balloons for astronomy · Classical planets · Cosmogony · Crater astronomy · Early telescope · Empirical astronomy · Entity astronomy · First astronomical source · First astronomical X-ray source · Galaxies · Gaseous-object astronomy · Intergalactic medium · Interplanetary medium · Interstellar medium · Liquid-object astronomy · Magnetohydrodynamics · Meteor astronomy · Meteorites · Muon astronomy · Neptune · Nucleosynthesis · Object astronomy · Planetary astronomy · Plasma-object astronomy · Radiation physics · Regional astronomy · Rocky-object astronomy · Solar astronomy · Sounding rockets for astronomy · Standard candles · Standard solar model · Stellar astronomy · Stellar science · Stellar surface fusion · Sun (star) · Uranus · X-ray trigonometric parallax
Quizzes

Analytical astronomy/Quiz · Astrognosy/Quiz · Astronomical observatories/Quiz · Astronomy/Quiz · Astrophysics/Quiz · Atmospheric astronomy/Quiz · Balloons for astronomy/Quiz · Blue astronomy/Quiz · Classical planets/Quiz Coronal cloud/Quiz · Cosmic-ray astronomy/Quiz · Cosmogony/Quiz · Crater astronomy/Quiz · Cyan astronomy/Quiz · Early telescope/Quiz · Electron astronomy/Quiz · Empirical astronomy/Quiz · Entity astronomy/Quiz · First astronomical source/Quiz · First astronomical X-ray source/Quiz · Galaxies/Quiz · Gamma-ray astronomy/Quiz · Gaseous-object astronomy/Quiz · Green astronomy/Quiz · Heliognosy/Quiz · Heliogony/Quiz · Heliography/Quiz · Heliology/Quiz · Heliometry/Quiz · Heliophysics/Quiz · Infrared astronomy/Quiz · Intergalactic medium/Quiz · Interplanetary medium/Quiz · Interstellar medium/Quiz · Liquid-object astronomy/Quiz · Lofting technology/Quiz · Magnetohydrodynamics/Quiz · Mathematical astronomy/Quiz · Meteor astronomy/Quiz · Meteorites/Quiz · Muon astronomy/Quiz · Neptune/Quiz · Neutrino astronomy/Quiz · Neutron astronomy/Quiz · Nucleosynthesis/Quiz · Object astronomy/Quiz · Optical astronomy/Quiz · Orange astronomy/Quiz · Planetary astronomy/Quiz · Planetary science/Quiz · Plasma astronomy/Quiz · Positron astronomy/Quiz · Proton astronomy/Quiz · Radiation/Quiz · Radiation astronomy/Quiz · Radiation chemistry/Quiz · Radiation detectors/Quiz · Radiation entities/Quiz · Radiation geography/Quiz · Radiation history/Quiz · Radiation mathematics/Quiz · Radiation physics/Quiz · Radiation satellites/Quiz · Radiation telescopes/Quiz · Radiative dynamo/Quiz · Radio astronomy/Quiz · Red astronomy/Quiz · Regional astronomy/Quiz · Rocky-object astronomy/Quiz · Solar astronomy/Quiz · Solar binary/Quiz · Sounding rockets for astronomy/Quiz · Source astronomy/Quiz · Standard candles/Quiz · Standard solar model/Quiz · Star fission/Quiz · Star-forming region/Quiz · Stellar active region/Quiz · Stellar astronomy/Quiz · Stellar science/Quiz · Stellar surface fusion/Quiz · Submillimeter astronomy/Quiz · Sun as an X-ray source/Quiz · Sun/Quiz · Superluminal astronomy/Quiz · Theoretical astronomy/Quiz · Theoretical radiation astronomy/Quiz · Ultraviolet astronomy/Quiz · Uranus/Quiz · Violet astronomy/Quiz · Visual astronomy/Quiz · X-ray astronomy/Quiz · X-ray classification of stars/Quiz · X-ray trigonometric parallax/Quiz · Yellow astronomy/Quiz
Hourlies
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Repellor vehicle
Lectures
Articles
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Lessons
History
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Learn more about Radiation

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Learn more about Radiation satellites

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Learn more about Satellites
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